Small molecule modulators of the androgen receptor

ABSTRACT

Provided herein are compounds useful for modulating the activity of an androgen receptor, or a variant thereof, and related compositions and methods. Compounds of the invention are useful for antagonizing the androgen receptor splice variant AR-v7, and for the treatment of castration-resistant prostate cancer.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §§ 120 and 365(c) to and is a continuation of international PCT Application, PCT/US2018/044204, filed Jul. 27, 2018, which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) to U.S. Provisional Application, U.S. Ser. No. 62/538,471, filed Jul. 28, 2017, each of which is incorporated herein by reference.

GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

This invention was made with government support under grant number. P30 CA014051 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

Prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related mortality of men in the United States according to the American Cancer Society.(1) A contributing factor is that tumors develop resistance to current treatments especially in therapies that involve targeting the androgen receptor (AR). Treatments generally rely upon continual androgen deprivation therapy via direct AR antagonism (enzalutimde, bicalutamide) or decrease in adrenal androgen production (abiraterone acetate). However, acquired resistance to these treatments potentially leads to castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) and an overall death rate of 1 in 38 men diagnosed with prostate cancer.(2, 3) Studies of CRPC demonstrated that despite low levels of circulating androgens, AR-mediated gene expression is often maintained by AR splice variants (AR-vs) that do not rely on androgen signaling.(4) Due to variations in their C-terminus, these AR-vs are commonly constitutively active and effectively mimic full-length AR (AR-FL) in their ability to transactivate androgen response elements (ARE) without androgen stimulation.(5) There are currently no FDA-approved drugs that target AR-vs leaving patients with CRPC with little or no option for treatment.

The full-length androgen receptor (AR-FL) is a steroid receptor transcription factor composed of an N-terminal domain (NTD), a DNA binding domain (DBD), and a C-terminal domain (CTD) consisting of a hinge region and a ligand binding domain (LBD).(6) In order for AR-FL to translocate to the nucleus for gene expression, androgens bind to the LBD inducing a structural change that exposes the nuclear localization signal (NLS) thereby initiating importation into the nucleus. Drugs such as enzalutamide target the LBD and thus, prevent nuclear translocation and AR-mediated gene expression. However, AR-vs arise from alternative splicing of the AR gene by insertion of “intronic” cryptic exons downstream of exons encoding the DNA-binding domain, thereby preventing ligand binding domain (LBD) incorporation.(7-9) Unfortunately, AR-vs have a basal level of nuclear localization and remain capable of transcriptional activity, even with the loss of the LBD.(10) This loss of LBD, in turn, provides a resistance pathway for current drug regimens.

Of the 15 known AR-v isoforms, AR-v7 is the most widely identified and clinically important variant in prostate cancer.(11) It is characterized by an unperturbed NTD and DBD with a portion of the NLS and a unique 16-amino acid sequence in its CTD derived from a cryptic exon incorporation.(7, 8) AR-v7 is constitutively active in the absence of androgens, can form homodimers and heterodimers with AR-FL promoting canonical AR-mediated gene expression, and also supports an expression profile unique to that of AR-FL, which includes prostate cancer relevant oncogene AKT1.(8, 12, 13) According to Haber and co-workers who conducted single-cell RNA-seq analysis on circulating tumor cells (CTCs), approximately 43% of CTCs (73 cells) from 11 patients with CRPC expressed at least one type of AR splice variant.(14) Eight out of 11 patients expressed AR-v7, and 8 out of 11 also expressed ARv567es (AR-v12).(14) Another recent study by Dai, Ye, and coworkers, demonstrated a significantly higher rate of AR-v7 expression in primary tumor cells derived from metastatic prostate cancer and CRPC patients over patients with localized prostate cancer.(15) As a result, they directly correlated higher AR-v7 expression to shorter survival likelihood in CRPC (p<0.001). AR-v7 is a clear avenue for resistance and CRPC persistence.

AR-v7 expression is an identified resistance pathway for continual AR-mediated gene expression that is commonly found in metastatic prostate cancer. Currently, there are no therapeutics specifically targeting AR-v7, thus leaving patients who present AR-v7 in CRPC with little or no options for treatment. Current androgen deprivation therapies rely on drugs such as abiraterone acetate or enzalutamide that either target the LBD of AR directly or alter adrenal androgen production. Because the majority of functional splice variants lack the ligand binding domain and are constitutively active, these frontline medications are rendered useless.

Due to the importance of AR-v7 in CRPC and metastatic CRPC, there remains a need for small molecules capable of binding AR-v7.

SUMMARY

To meet this need, compounds binding to AR-v7 were identified using the combination of a small molecule microarray (SMM) screen of 50,000 compounds, qPCR, and reporter assays. The SMM was screened against a functional AR-truncate composed of the NTD and DBD (exons 1-3) and therefore targeting these domains specifically. Candidate compounds were further evaluated in a series of assays designed to show specificity to AR-sensitive cell lines.

Compounds (1) and (2), shown below, were found to bind to AR-v7. Compound (1) demonstrated a promising IC₅₀ of 5.43 μM in an LNCaP reporter assay. Compound (2) displayed a relatively similar IC₅₀ of 6.86 μM in an LNCaP reporter assay.

Accordingly, in one aspect, provided herein is a compound of Formula (I):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

A is optionally substituted heterocyclyl or optionally substituted heteroaryl;

L and L₁, independently, are absent, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ heteroaliphatic;

Q is hydrogen, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —R^(a), —OH, —OR^(a), —OC(O)R^(a), —OC(O)OR^(a), —OC(O)N(R^(a))₂, —NH₂, —N(R^(a))₂, —NC(O)R^(a), —NC(O)OR^(a), or —NC(O)N(R^(a))₂;

each of occurrence of R^(a), independently, is optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heteroaliphatic, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;

R₁ is optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heteroaliphatic, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;

R₂ is hydrogen, optionally substituted aliphatic, or optionally substituted heteroaliphatic;

X₁ and X₂, independently, are hydrogen, halogen, —OH, or optionally substituted aliphatic, or X₁ and X₂ are taken together to form an oxo (═O) group; and

Q and L, Q and L₁, Q and R₂ or Q and X₁ may combine to form a ring.

In an embodiment, the compound of Formula (I) is selected from Formulae (IA), (IB), (IC), (ID) and (IE), and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof:

In an embodiment, the compound of Formula (I) has the structure of Formula (IF)

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

L is absent, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ heteroaliphatic;

each occurrence of R is independently halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —R^(a), —OH, —OR^(a), —OC(O)R^(a), —OC(O)OR^(a), —OC(O)N(R^(a))₂, —NH₂, —N(R^(a))₂, —NC(O)R^(a), —NC(O)OR^(a), or —NC(O)N(R^(a))₂;

each occurrence of R^(a) is independently optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heteroaliphatic, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;

R₁ is optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;

R₂ is hydrogen, optionally substituted aliphatic, or optionally substituted heteroaliphatic;

Z₁ and Z₂ are independently absent, C₁₋₂ alkylene, or

provided that only one of Z₁ and Z₂ is

R₃ is optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heteroaliphatic, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; and

n is 0-3.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is not N-(2-((1S,4S)-bicyclo[2.2.1]hept-5-en-2-yl)ethyl)-3-((1-(cyclopropanecarbonyl)piperidin-4-yl)oxy)benzamide or a stereoisomer thereof. In a particular embodiment, the compound of Formula (I) is not compound (1).

In certain embodiments, Formula (IF) is selected from Formulae (IF-a), (IF-b), (IF-c), (IF-d), and (IF-e):

In an embodiment, Formula (IF) is selected from Formulae (IF-a3), (IF-a4), (IF-b3), (IF-b4), (IF-c3), (IF-c4), (IF-d3), (IF-d4), (IF-e3), and (IF-e4):

In another aspect, provided herein is a compound of Formula (II):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

L₁ is absent, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ heteroaliphatic;

L₂ is absent, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ heteroaliphatic;

X is —O—, —S— or —N(R)—;

R is hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl;

Q₁, Q₂, and Q₃, independently, are ═N— or ═C(R₁)—;

R₁ is hydrogen, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —R^(a), —OH, —OR^(a), —OC(O)R^(a), —OC(O)OR^(a), —OC(O)N(R^(a))₂, —NH₂, —N(R^(a))₂, —NC(O)R^(a), —NC(O)OR^(a), or —NC(O)N(R^(a))₂;

each occurrence of R^(a) is independently optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heteroaliphatic, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;

R₂ is optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;

R₃ is optionally substituted alkyl or optionally substituted cycloalkyl;

R₄ is hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl; and

R₅ is optionally substituted aryl or optionally substituted heteroaryl.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is not 4-((((1R,4R)-bicyclo[2.2.1]hept-5-en-2-yl)methyl)amino)-N,5-dimethyl-N-(quinolin-5-ylmethyl)thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine-6-carboxamide, or a stereoisomer thereof. In a particular embodiment, the compound of Formula (II) is not compound (2).

In an embodiment, the compound of Formula (II) has a structure selected from Formulae (IIA), (IIB), (IIC), and (IID), and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof:

In a particular embodiment, the compound Formula (II) has the structure of Formula (IIA), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof:

wherein:

L₁ is absent, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ heteroaliphatic;

L₂ is absent, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ heteroaliphatic;

X is —O—, —S— or —N(R)—;

R is hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl;

R₁ is halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —R^(a), —OH, —OR^(a), —OC(O)R^(a), —OC(O)OR^(a), —OC(O)N(R^(a))₂, —NH₂, —N(R^(a))₂, —NC(O)R^(a), —NC(O)OR^(a), or —NC(O)N(R^(a))₂; wherein

each occurrence of R^(a) is independently optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heteroaliphatic, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;

R₂ is optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;

R₃ is optionally substituted alkyl or optionally substituted cycloalkyl;

R₄ is hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl; and

R₅ is optionally substituted aryl or optionally substituted heteroaryl. In another aspect, provided herein is a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of the invention, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent.

In another aspect, provided herein is a method of modulating the expression of a gene in a subject, wherein the gene expression is mediated by an androgen receptor, comprising administering to the subject a compound of the invention.

In another aspect, provided herein is a method of modulating the expression of a gene, wherein the gene expression is mediated by an androgen receptor, comprising exposing the androgen receptor to a compound of the invention.

In another aspect, provided herein is a method of modulating the expression of a gene, wherein the gene expression is mediated by an androgen receptor, comprising contacting the androgen receptor with a compound of the invention.

In another aspect, provided herein is a method of modulating androgen receptor function, comprising exposing the androgen receptor to a compound of the invention.

In another aspect, provided herein is a method of modulating androgen receptor function in a subject, comprising administering to the subject a compound of the invention.

In another aspect, provided herein is a method of modulating androgen receptor function, comprising contacting the androgen receptor with a compound of the invention.

In another aspect, provided herein is a method of treating prostate cancer in a subject in need of such treatment comprising administering to the subject a compound of the invention, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof.

The details of certain embodiments of the invention are set forth in the Detailed Description of Certain Embodiments, as described below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the Definitions, Examples, Figures, and Claims.

Definitions

Definitions of specific functional groups and chemical terms are described in more detail below. The chemical elements are identified in accordance with the Periodic Table of the Elements, CAS version, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 75^(th) Ed., inside cover, and specific functional groups are generally defined as described therein. Additionally, general principles of organic chemistry, as well as specific functional moieties and reactivity, are described in Organic Chemistry, Thomas Sorrell, University Science Books, Sausalito, 1999; Smith and March March's Advanced Organic Chemistry, 5^(th) Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2001; Larock, Comprehensive Organic Transformations, VCH Publishers, Inc., New York, 1989; and Carruthers, Some Modern Methods of Organic Synthesis, 3^(rd) Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1987.

Compounds described herein can comprise one or more asymmetric centers, and thus can exist in various stereoisomeric forms, e.g., enantiomers and/or diastereomers. For example, the compounds described herein can be in the form of an individual enantiomer, diastereomer or geometric isomer, or can be in the form of a mixture of stereoisomers, including racemic mixtures and mixtures enriched in one or more stereoisomer. Isomers can be isolated from mixtures by methods known to those skilled in the art, including chiral high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the formation and crystallization of chiral salts; or preferred isomers can be prepared by asymmetric syntheses. See, for example, Jacques et al., Enantiomers, Racemates and Resolutions (Wiley Interscience, New York, 1981); Wilen et al., Tetrahedron 33:2725 (1977); Eliel, E. L. Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds (McGraw-Hill, N Y, 1962); and Wilen, S. H. Tables of Resolving Agents and Optical Resolutions p. 268 (E. L. Eliel, Ed., Univ. of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, Ind. 1972). The invention additionally encompasses compounds as individual isomers substantially free of other isomers, and alternatively, as mixtures of various isomers.

In a formula,

is a single bond where the stereochemistry of the moieties immediately attached thereto is not specified, --- is absent or a single bond, and

or

is a single or double bond.

Unless otherwise stated, structures depicted herein are also meant to include compounds that differ only in the presence of one or more isotopically enriched atoms. For example, compounds having the present structures except for the replacement of hydrogen by deuterium or tritium, replacement of ¹⁹F with ¹⁸F, or the replacement of a carbon by a ¹³C- or ¹⁴C-enriched carbon are within the scope of the disclosure. Such compounds are useful, for example, as analytical tools or probes in biological assays.

When a range of values is listed, it is intended to encompass each value and subrange within the range. For example “C₁₋₆ alkyl” is intended to encompass, C₁, C₂, C₃, C₄, C₅, C₆, C₁₋₆, C₁₋₅, C₁₋₄, C₁₋₃, C₁₋₂, C₂₋₆, C₂₋₅, C₂₋₄, C₂₋₃, C₃₋₆, C₃₋₅, C₃₋₄, C₄₋₆, C₄₋₅, and C₅₋₆ alkyl.

The term “aliphatic” refers to alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, and carbocyclic groups. Likewise, the term “heteroaliphatic” refers to heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, and heterocyclic groups.

The term “alkyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain or branched saturated hydrocarbon group having from 1 to 10 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₁₀ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 9 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₉ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 8 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₈ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 7 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₇ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 6 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₆ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 5 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₅ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 4 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₄ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 3 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₃ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 2 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₂ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 carbon atom (“C₁ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₆ alkyl”). Examples of C₁₋₆ alkyl groups include methyl (C₁), ethyl (C₂), propyl (C₃) (e.g., n-propyl, isopropyl), butyl (C₄) (e.g., n-butyl, tert-butyl, sec-butyl, iso-butyl), pentyl (C₅) (e.g., n-pentyl, 3-pentanyl, amyl, neopentyl, 3-methyl-2-butanyl, tertiary amyl), and hexyl (C₆) (e.g., n-hexyl). Additional examples of alkyl groups include n-heptyl (C₇), n-octyl (C₈), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkyl”) or substituted (a “substituted alkyl”) with one or more substituents (e.g., halogen, such as F). In certain embodiments, the alkyl group is an unsubstituted C₁₋₁₀ alkyl (such as unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, e.g., —CH₃ (Me), unsubstituted ethyl (Et), unsubstituted propyl (Pr, e.g., unsubstituted n-propyl (n-Pr), unsubstituted isopropyl (i-Pr)), unsubstituted butyl (Bu, e.g., unsubstituted n-butyl (n-Bu), unsubstituted tert-butyl (tert-Bu or t-Bu), unsubstituted sec-butyl (sec-Bu or s-Bu), unsubstituted isobutyl (i-Bu)). In certain embodiments, the alkyl group is a substituted C₁₋₁₀ alkyl (such as substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, e.g., —CH₂F, —CHF₂, —CF₃ or benzyl (Bn)).

The term “haloalkyl” is a substituted alkyl group, wherein one or more of the hydrogen atoms are independently replaced by a halogen, e.g., fluoro, bromo, chloro, or iodo. “Perhaloalkyl” is a subset of haloalkyl, and refers to an alkyl group wherein all of the hydrogen atoms are independently replaced by a halogen, e.g., fluoro, bromo, chloro, or iodo. In some embodiments, the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 8 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₈ haloalkyl”). In some embodiments, the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 6 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₆ haloalkyl”). In some embodiments, the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 4 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₄ haloalkyl”). In some embodiments, the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 3 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₃ haloalkyl”). In some embodiments, the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 2 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₂ haloalkyl”). In some embodiments, all of the haloalkyl hydrogen atoms are replaced with fluoro to provide a perfluoroalkyl group. In some embodiments, all of the haloalkyl hydrogen atoms are replaced with chloro to provide a “perchloroalkyl” group. Examples of haloalkyl groups include —CF₃, —CF₂CF₃, —CF₂CF₂CF₃, —CCl₃, —CFCl₂, —CF₂Cl, and the like.

The term “heteroalkyl” refers to an alkyl group, which further includes at least one heteroatom (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 heteroatoms) selected from oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur within (i.e., inserted between adjacent carbon atoms of) and/or placed at one or more terminal position(s) of the parent chain. In certain embodiments, a heteroalkyl group refers to a saturated group having from 1 to 10 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₁₋₁₀ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 9 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₁₋₉ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 8 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₁₋₈ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 7 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₁₋₇ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 6 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₁₋₆ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 5 carbon atoms and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₁₋₅ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 4 carbon atoms and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₁₋₄ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 3 carbon atoms and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC₁₋₃ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 2 carbon atoms and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC₁₋₂ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 carbon atom and 1 heteroatom (“heteroC₁ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 2 to 6 carbon atoms and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₆ alkyl”). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroalkyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heteroalkyl”) or substituted (a “substituted heteroalkyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkyl group is an unsubstituted heteroC₁₋₁₀ alkyl. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkyl group is a substituted heteroC₁₋₁₀ alkyl.

The term “alkenyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain or branched hydrocarbon group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms and one or more carbon-carbon double bonds (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 double bonds). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₉ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₈ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₇ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₆ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₅ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₄ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₃ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 carbon atoms (“C₂ alkenyl”). The one or more carbon-carbon double bonds can be internal (such as in 2-butenyl) or terminal (such as in 1-butenyl). Examples of C₂₋₄ alkenyl groups include ethenyl (C₂), 1-propenyl (C₃), 2-propenyl (C₃), 1-butenyl (C₄), 2-butenyl (C₄), butadienyl (C₄), and the like. Examples of C₂₋₆ alkenyl groups include the aforementioned C₂₋₄ alkenyl groups as well as pentenyl (C₅), pentadienyl (C₅), hexenyl (C₆), and the like. Additional examples of alkenyl include heptenyl (C₇), octenyl (C₈), octatrienyl (C₈), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkenyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkenyl”) or substituted (a “substituted alkenyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the alkenyl group is an unsubstituted C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl. In certain embodiments, the alkenyl group is a substituted C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl. In an alkenyl group, a C═C double bond for which the stereochemistry is not specified (e.g., —CH═CHCH₃,

may be in the (E)- or (Z)-configuration.

The term “heteroalkenyl” refers to an alkenyl group, which further includes at least one heteroatom (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 heteroatoms) selected from oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur within (i.e., inserted between adjacent carbon atoms of) and/or placed at one or more terminal position(s) of the parent chain. In certain embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group refers to a group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₁₀ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₉ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₈ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₇ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₆ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₅ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₄ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₃ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₆ alkenyl”). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroalkenyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heteroalkenyl”) or substituted (a “substituted heteroalkenyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkenyl group is an unsubstituted heteroC₂₋₁₀ alkenyl. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkenyl group is a substituted heteroC₂₋₁₀ alkenyl.

The term “alkynyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain or branched hydrocarbon group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms and one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 triple bonds) (“C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₉ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₈ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₇ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₆ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₅ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₄ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₃ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 carbon atoms (“C₂ alkynyl”). The one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds can be internal (such as in 2-butynyl) or terminal (such as in 1-butynyl). Examples of C₂₋₄ alkynyl groups include, without limitation, ethynyl (C₂), 1-propynyl (C₃), 2-propynyl (C₃), 1-butynyl (C₄), 2-butynyl (C₄), and the like. Examples of C₂₋₆ alkenyl groups include the aforementioned C₂₋₄ alkynyl groups as well as pentynyl (C₅), hexynyl (C₆), and the like. Additional examples of alkynyl include heptynyl (C₇), octynyl (C₈), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkynyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkynyl”) or substituted (a “substituted alkynyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the alkynyl group is an unsubstituted C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl. In certain embodiments, the alkynyl group is a substituted C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl.

The term “heteroalkynyl” refers to an alkynyl group, which further includes at least one heteroatom (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 heteroatoms) selected from oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur within (i.e., inserted between adjacent carbon atoms of) and/or placed at one or more terminal position(s) of the parent chain. In certain embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group refers to a group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₁₀ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₉ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₈ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₇ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₆ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₅ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₄ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₃ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₆ alkynyl”). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroalkynyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heteroalkynyl”) or substituted (a “substituted heteroalkynyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkynyl group is an unsubstituted heteroC₂₋₁₀ alkynyl. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkynyl group is a substituted heteroC₂₋₁₀ alkynyl.

The term “carbocyclyl” or “carbocyclic” refers to a radical of a non-aromatic cyclic hydrocarbon group having from 3 to 14 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₁₄ carbocyclyl”) and zero heteroatoms in the non-aromatic ring system. In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 8 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₈ carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 7 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₇ carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₆ carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 4 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₄₋₆ carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 5 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₅₋₆ carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 5 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C₅₋₁₀ carbocyclyl”). Exemplary C₃₋₆ carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, cyclopropyl (C₃), cyclopropenyl (C₃), cyclobutyl (C₄), cyclobutenyl (C₄), cyclopentyl (C₅), cyclopentenyl (C₅), cyclohexyl (C₆), cyclohexenyl (C₆), cyclohexadienyl (C₆), and the like. Exemplary C₃₋₈ carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, the aforementioned C₃₋₆ carbocyclyl groups as well as cycloheptyl (C₇), cycloheptenyl (C₇), cycloheptadienyl (C₇), cycloheptatrienyl (C₇), cyclooctyl (C₈), cyclooctenyl (C₈), bicyclo[2.2.1]heptanyl (C₇), bicyclo[2.2.2]octanyl (C₈), and the like. Exemplary C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, the aforementioned C₃₋₈ carbocyclyl groups as well as cyclononyl (C₉), cyclononenyl (C₉), cyclodecyl (C₁₀), cyclodecenyl (C₁₀), octahydro-1H-indenyl (C₉), decahydronaphthalenyl (C₁₀), spiro[4.5]decanyl (C₁₀), and the like. As the foregoing examples illustrate, in certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is either monocyclic (“monocyclic carbocyclyl”) or polycyclic (e.g., containing a fused, bridged or spiro ring system such as a bicyclic system (“bicyclic carbocyclyl”) or tricyclic system (“tricyclic carbocyclyl”)) and can be saturated or can contain one or more carbon-carbon double or triple bonds. “Carbocyclyl” also includes ring systems wherein the carbocyclyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl or heteroaryl groups wherein the point of attachment is on the carbocyclyl ring, and in such instances, the number of carbons continue to designate the number of carbons in the carbocyclic ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a carbocyclyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted carbocyclyl”) or substituted (a “substituted carbocyclyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is an unsubstituted C₃₋₁₄ carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is a substituted C₃₋₁₄ carbocyclyl.

In some embodiments, “carbocyclyl” is a monocyclic, saturated carbocyclyl group having from 3 to 14 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₁₄ cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₁₀ cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 3 to 8 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₈ cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 4 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₄₋₆ cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 5 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₅₋₆ cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 5 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C₅₋₁₀ cycloalkyl”). Examples of C₅₋₆ cycloalkyl groups include cyclopentyl (C₅) and cyclohexyl (C₅). Examples of C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl groups include the aforementioned C₅₋₆ cycloalkyl groups as well as cyclopropyl (C₃) and cyclobutyl (C₄). Examples of C₃₋₈ cycloalkyl groups include the aforementioned C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl groups as well as cycloheptyl (C₇) and cyclooctyl (C₈). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a cycloalkyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted cycloalkyl”) or substituted (a “substituted cycloalkyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the cycloalkyl group is an unsubstituted C₃₋₁₄ cycloalkyl. In certain embodiments, the cycloalkyl group is a substituted C₃₋₁₄ cycloalkyl. In certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl includes 0, 1, or 2 C═C double bonds in the carbocyclic ring system, as valency permits.

The term “heterocyclyl” or “heterocyclic” refers to a radical of a 3- to 14-membered non-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1 to 4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“3-14 membered heterocyclyl”). In heterocyclyl groups that contain one or more nitrogen atoms, the point of attachment can be a carbon or nitrogen atom, as valency permits. A heterocyclyl group can either be monocyclic (“monocyclic heterocyclyl”) or polycyclic (e.g., a fused, bridged or spiro ring system such as a bicyclic system (“bicyclic heterocyclyl”) or tricyclic system (“tricyclic heterocyclyl”)), and can be saturated or can contain one or more carbon-carbon double or triple bonds. Heterocyclyl polycyclic ring systems can include one or more heteroatoms in one or both rings. “Heterocyclyl” also includes ring systems wherein the heterocyclyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl groups wherein the point of attachment is either on the carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl ring, or ring systems wherein the heterocyclyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl or heteroaryl groups, wherein the point of attachment is on the heterocyclyl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members continue to designate the number of ring members in the heterocyclyl ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of heterocyclyl is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heterocyclyl”) or substituted (a “substituted heterocyclyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heterocyclyl group is an unsubstituted 3-14 membered heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, the heterocyclyl group is a substituted 3-14 membered heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, the heterocyclyl is substituted or unsubstituted, 3- to 7-membered, monocyclic heterocyclyl, wherein 1, 2, or 3 atoms in the heterocyclic ring system are independently oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur, as valency permits.

In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5-10 membered non-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-10 membered heterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5-8 membered non-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-8 membered heterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5-6 membered non-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-6 membered heterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heterocyclyl has 1-3 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heterocyclyl has 1-2 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heterocyclyl has 1 ring heteroatom selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

Exemplary 3-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azirdinyl, oxiranyl, and thiiranyl. Exemplary 4-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azetidinyl, oxetanyl, and thietanyl. Exemplary 5-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, tetrahydrofuranyl, dihydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothiophenyl, dihydrothiophenyl, pyrrolidinyl, dihydropyrrolyl, and pyrrolyl-2,5-dione. Exemplary 5-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, dioxolanyl, oxathiolanyl and dithiolanyl. Exemplary 5-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 3 heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazolinyl, oxadiazolinyl, and thiadiazolinyl. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, piperidinyl, tetrahydropyranyl, dihydropyridinyl, and thianyl. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, piperazinyl, morpholinyl, dithianyl, and dioxanyl. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 3 heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazinyl. Exemplary 7-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azepanyl, oxepanyl and thiepanyl. Exemplary 8-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azocanyl, oxecanyl and thiocanyl. Exemplary bicyclic heterocyclyl groups include, without limitation, indolinyl, isoindolinyl, dihydrobenzofuranyl, dihydrobenzothienyl, tetrahydrobenzothienyl, tetrahydrobenzofuranyl, tetrahydroindolyl, tetrahydroquinolinyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl, decahydroquinolinyl, decahydroisoquinolinyl, octahydrochromenyl, octahydroisochromenyl, decahydronaphthyridinyl, decahydro-1,8-naphthyridinyl, octahydropyrrolo[3,2-b]pyrrole, indolinyl, phthalimidyl, naphthalimidyl, chromanyl, chromenyl, 1H-benzo[e][1,4]diazepinyl, 1,4,5,7-tetrahydropyrano[3,4-b]pyrrolyl, 5,6-dihydro-4H-furo[3,2-b]pyrrolyl, 6,7-dihydro-5H-furo[3,2-b]pyranyl, 5,7-dihydro-4H-thieno[2,3-c]pyranyl, 2,3-dihydro-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridinyl, 2,3-dihydrofuro[2,3-b]pyridinyl, 4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridinyl, 4,5,6,7-tetrahydrofuro[3,2-c]pyridinyl, 4,5,6,7-tetrahydrothieno[3,2-b]pyridinyl, 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1,6-naphthyridinyl, and the like.

The term “aryl” refers to a radical of a monocyclic or polycyclic (e.g., bicyclic or tricyclic) 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6, 10, or 14 r electrons shared in a cyclic array) having 6-14 ring carbon atoms and zero heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system (“C₆₋₁₄ aryl”). In some embodiments, an aryl group has 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₆ aryl”; e.g., phenyl). In some embodiments, an aryl group has 10 ring carbon atoms (“C₁₀ aryl”; e.g., naphthyl such as 1-naphthyl and 2-naphthyl). In some embodiments, an aryl group has 14 ring carbon atoms (“C₁₄ aryl”; e.g., anthracyl). “Aryl” also includes ring systems wherein the aryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl groups wherein the radical or point of attachment is on the aryl ring, and in such instances, the number of carbon atoms continue to designate the number of carbon atoms in the aryl ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an aryl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted aryl”) or substituted (a “substituted aryl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the aryl group is an unsubstituted C₆₋₁₄ aryl. In certain embodiments, the aryl group is a substituted C₆₋₁₄ aryl.

“Aralkyl” is a subset of “alkyl” and refers to an alkyl group substituted by an aryl group, wherein the point of attachment is on the alkyl moiety.

The term “heteroaryl” refers to a radical of a 5-14 membered monocyclic or polycyclic (e.g., bicyclic, tricyclic) 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6, 10, or 14 t electrons shared in a cyclic array) having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-14 membered heteroaryl”). In heteroaryl groups that contain one or more nitrogen atoms, the point of attachment can be a carbon or nitrogen atom, as valency permits. Heteroaryl polycyclic ring systems can include one or more heteroatoms in one or both rings. “Heteroaryl” includes ring systems wherein the heteroaryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl groups wherein the point of attachment is on the heteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members continue to designate the number of ring members in the heteroaryl ring system. “Heteroaryl” also includes ring systems wherein the heteroaryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl groups wherein the point of attachment is either on the aryl or heteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members designates the number of ring members in the fused polycyclic (aryl/heteroaryl) ring system. Polycyclic heteroaryl groups wherein one ring does not contain a heteroatom (e.g., indolyl, quinolinyl, carbazolyl, and the like) the point of attachment can be on either ring, i.e., either the ring bearing a heteroatom (e.g., 2-indolyl) or the ring that does not contain a heteroatom (e.g., 5-indolyl). In certain embodiments, the heteroaryl is substituted or unsubstituted, 5- or 6-membered, monocyclic heteroaryl, wherein 1, 2, 3, or 4 atoms in the heteroaryl ring system are independently oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. In certain embodiments, the heteroaryl is substituted or unsubstituted, 9- or 10-membered, bicyclic heteroaryl, wherein 1, 2, 3, or 4 atoms in the heteroaryl ring system are independently oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur.

In some embodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5-10 membered aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-10 membered heteroaryl”). In some embodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5-8 membered aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-8 membered heteroaryl”). In some embodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5-6 membered aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-6 membered heteroaryl”). In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heteroaryl has 1-3 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heteroaryl has 1-2 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heteroaryl has 1 ring heteroatom selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroaryl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heteroaryl”) or substituted (a “substituted heteroaryl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heteroaryl group is an unsubstituted 5-14 membered heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, the heteroaryl group is a substituted 5-14 membered heteroaryl.

Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, pyrrolyl, furanyl, and thiophenyl. Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, and isothiazolyl. Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing 3 heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazolyl, oxadiazolyl, and thiadiazolyl. Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing 4 heteroatoms include, without limitation, tetrazolyl. Exemplary 6-membered heteroaryl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, pyridinyl. Exemplary 6-membered heteroaryl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, and pyrazinyl. Exemplary 6-membered heteroaryl groups containing 3 or 4 heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazinyl and tetrazinyl, respectively. Exemplary 7-membered heteroaryl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azepinyl, oxepinyl, and thiepinyl. Exemplary 5,6-bicyclic heteroaryl groups include, without limitation, indolyl, isoindolyl, indazolyl, benzotriazolyl, benzothiophenyl, isobenzothiophenyl, benzofuranyl, benzoisofuranyl, benzimidazolyl, benzoxazolyl, benzisoxazolyl, benzoxadiazolyl, benzthiazolyl, benzisothiazolyl, benzthiadiazolyl, indolizinyl, and purinyl. Exemplary 6,6-bicyclic heteroaryl groups include, without limitation, naphthyridinyl, pteridinyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, cinnolinyl, quinoxalinyl, phthalazinyl, and quinazolinyl. Exemplary tricyclic heteroaryl groups include, without limitation, phenanthridinyl, dibenzofuranyl, carbazolyl, acridinyl, phenothiazinyl, phenoxazinyl and phenazinyl.

“Heteroaralkyl” is a subset of “alkyl” and refers to an alkyl group substituted by a heteroaryl group, wherein the point of attachment is on the alkyl moiety.

The term “unsaturated bond” refers to a double or triple bond.

The term “unsaturated” or “partially unsaturated” refers to a moiety that includes at least one double or triple bond.

The term “saturated” refers to a moiety that does not contain a double or triple bond, i.e., the moiety only contains single bonds.

Affixing the suffix “-ene” to a group indicates the group is a divalent moiety, e.g., alkylene is the divalent moiety of alkyl, alkenylene is the divalent moiety of alkenyl, alkynylene is the divalent moiety of alkynyl, heteroalkylene is the divalent moiety of heteroalkyl, heteroalkenylene is the divalent moiety of heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynylene is the divalent moiety of heteroalkynyl, carbocyclylene is the divalent moiety of carbocyclyl, heterocyclylene is the divalent moiety of heterocyclyl, arylene is the divalent moiety of aryl, and heteroarylene is the divalent moiety of heteroaryl.

A group is optionally substituted unless expressly provided otherwise. The term “optionally substituted” refers to being substituted or unsubstituted. In certain embodiments, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted. “Optionally substituted” refers to a group which may be substituted or unsubstituted (e.g., “substituted” or “unsubstituted” alkyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” alkenyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” alkynyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heteroalkyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heteroalkenyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heteroalkynyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” carbocyclyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heterocyclyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” aryl or “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heteroaryl group). In general, the term “substituted” means that at least one hydrogen present on a group is replaced with a permissible substituent, e.g., a substituent which upon substitution results in a stable compound, e.g., a compound which does not spontaneously undergo transformation such as by rearrangement, cyclization, elimination, or other reaction. Unless otherwise indicated, a “substituted” group has a substituent at one or more substitutable positions of the group, and when more than one position in any given structure is substituted, the substituent is either the same or different at each position. The term “substituted” is contemplated to include substitution with all permissible substituents of organic compounds, and includes any of the substituents described herein that results in the formation of a stable compound. The present invention contemplates any and all such combinations in order to arrive at a stable compound. For purposes of this invention, heteroatoms such as nitrogen may have hydrogen substituents and/or any suitable substituent as described herein which satisfy the valencies of the heteroatoms and results in the formation of a stable moiety. The invention is not intended to be limited in any manner by the exemplary substituents described herein.

Exemplary carbon atom substituents include, but are not limited to, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃, —SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OR^(aa), —ON(R^(bb))₂, —N(R^(bb))₂, —N(R^(bb))₃ ⁺X⁻, —N(OR^(cc))R^(bb), —SH, —SR^(aa), —SSR^(cc), —C(═O)R^(aa), —CO₂H, —CHO, —C(OR^(cc))₂, —CO₂R^(aa), —OC(═O)R^(aa), —OCO₂R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —OC(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —NR^(bb)C(═O)R^(aa), —NR^(bb)CO₂R^(aa), —NR^(bb)C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —OC(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —OC(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —OC(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —NR^(bb)C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)NR^(bb)SO₂R^(aa), —NR^(bb)SO₂R^(aa), —SO₂N(R^(bb))₂, —SO₂R^(aa), —SO₂OR^(aa), —OSO₂R^(aa), —S(═O)R^(aa), —OS(═O)R^(aa), —Si(R^(aa))₃, —OSi(R^(aa))₃—C(═S)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)SR^(aa), —C(═S)SR^(aa), —SC(═S)SR^(aa), —SC(═O)SR^(aa), —OC(═O)SR^(aa), —SC(═O)OR^(aa), —SC(═O)R^(aa), —P(═O)₂R^(aa), —OP(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —OP(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —OP(═O)(OR^(cc))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂, —OP(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂, —P(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, —OP(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, —NR^(bb)P(═O)(OR^(cc))₂, —NR^(bb)P(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, —P(R^(cc))₂, —P(R^(cc))₃, —OP(R^(cc))₂, —OP(R^(cc))₃, —B(R^(aa))₂, —B(OR^(cc))₂, —BR^(aa)(OR^(cc)), C₁₋₁₀ alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, heteroC₁₋₁₀ alkyl, heteroC₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, heteroC₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;

or two geminal hydrogens on a carbon atom are replaced with the group ═O, ═S, ═NN(R^(bb))₂, ═NNR^(bb)C(═O)R^(aa), ═NNR^(bb)C(═O)OR^(aa), ═NNR^(bb)S(═O)₂R^(aa), ═NR^(bb), or ═NOR^(cc);

each instance of R^(a) is, independently, selected from C₁₋₁₀ alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, heteroC₁₋₁₀ alkyl, heteroC₂₋₁₀alkenyl, heteroC₂₋₁₀alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two R^(aa) groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;

each instance of R^(bb) is, independently, selected from hydrogen, —OH, —OR^(aa), —N(R^(cc))₂, —CN, —C(═O)R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(cc))₂, —CO₂R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂R^(cc), —SO₂OR^(cc), —SOR^(aa), —C(═S)N(R^(cc))₂, —C(═O)SR^(cc), —C(═S)SR^(cc), —P(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(cc))₂, —P(═O)(NR^(cc))₂, C₁₋₁₀ alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, heteroC₁₋₁₀alkyl, heteroC₂₋₁₀alkenyl, heteroC₂₋₁₀alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two R^(bb) groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;

each instance of R^(cc) is, independently, selected from hydrogen, C₁₋₁₀ alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, heteroC₁₋₁₀ alkyl, heteroC₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, heteroC₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two R^(cc) groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;

each instance of R^(dd) is, independently, selected from halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃, —SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OR^(ee), —ON(R^(ff))₂, —N(R^(ff))₂, —N(R^(ff))₃₊X, —N(OR^(ee))R^(ff), —SH, —SR^(ee), —SSR^(ee), —C(═O)R^(ee), —CO₂H, —CO₂R^(ee), —OC(═O)R^(ee), —OCO₂R^(ee), —C(═O)N(R^(ff))₂, —OC(═O)N(R^(ff))₂, —NR^(ff)C(═O)R^(ee), —NR^(ff)CO₂R^(ee), —NR^(ff)C(═O)N(R)₂, —C(═NR^(ff))OR^(ee), —OC(═NR^(ff))R^(ee), —OC(═NR^(ff))OR^(ee), —C(═NR^(ff))N(R^(ff))₂, —OC(═NR^(ff))N(R^(ff))₂, —NR^(ff)C(═NR^(ff))N(R^(ff))₂, —NR^(ff)SO₂R^(ee), —SO₂N(R^(ff))₂, —SO₂R^(ee), —SO₂OR^(ee), —OSO₂R^(ee), —S(═O)R^(ee), —Si(R^(ee))₃, —OSi(R^(ee))₃, —C(═S)N(R^(ff))₂, —C(═O)SR^(ee), —C(═S)SR^(ee), —SC(═S)SR^(ee), —P(═O)₂R^(ee), —P(═O)(R^(ee))₂, —OP(═O)(R^(ee))₂, —OP(═O)(OR^(ee))₂, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₆ alkenyl, C₂₋₆ alkynyl, heteroC₁₋₆alkyl, heteroC₂₋₆alkenyl, heteroC₂₋₆alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₀ aryl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(gg) groups, or two geminal R^(dd) substituents can be joined to form ═O or ═S;

each instance of R^(ee) is, independently, selected from C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₆ alkenyl, C₂₋₆ alkynyl, heteroC₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroC₂₋₆alkenyl, heteroC₂₋₆ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, C₆₋₁₀ aryl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, and 3-10 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(gg) groups;

each instance of R^(ff) is, independently, selected from hydrogen, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₆ alkenyl, C₂₋₆ alkynyl, heteroC₁₋₆alkyl, heteroC₂₋₆alkenyl, heteroC₂₋₆alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₀ aryl and 5-10 membered heteroaryl, or two R^(ff) groups are joined to form a 3-10 membered heterocyclyl or 5-10 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(gg) groups; and

each instance of R^(gg) is, independently, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃, —SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OC₁₋₆ alkyl, —ON(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₃ ⁺X⁻, —NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂ ⁺X⁻, —NH₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl)⁺X⁻, —NH₃ ⁺X⁻, —N(OC₁₋₆ alkyl)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —N(OH)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —NH(OH), —SH, —SC₁₋₆ alkyl, —SS(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —C(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —CO₂H, —CO₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —OC(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —OCO₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —C(═O)NH₂, —C(═O)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —OC(═O)NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —NHC(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)C(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —NHCO₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —NHC(═O)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —NHC(═O)NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —NHC(═O)NH₂, —C(═NH)O(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —OC(═NH)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —OC(═NH)OC₁₋₆ alkyl, —C(═NH)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —C(═NH)NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —C(═NH)NH₂, —OC(═NH)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —OC(NH)NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —OC(NH)NH₂, —NHC(NH)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —NHC(═NH)NH₂, —NHSO₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —SO₂N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —SO₂NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —SO₂NH₂,—SO₂C₁₋₆ alkyl, —SO₂OC₁₋₆ alkyl, —OSO₂C₁₋₆ alkyl, —SOC₁₋₆ alkyl, —Si(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₃, —OSi(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₃-C(═S)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, C(═S)NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl), C(═S)NH₂, —C(═O)S(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —C(═S)SC₁₋₆ alkyl, —SC(═S)SC₁₋₆ alkyl, —P(═O)₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —P(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —OP(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —OP(═O)(OC₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₆ alkenyl, C₂₋₆ alkynyl, heteroC₁₋₆alkyl, heteroC₂₋₆alkenyl, heteroC₂₋₆alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, C₆₋₁₀ aryl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl; or two geminal R^(gg) substituents can be joined to form ═O or ═S; wherein X is a counterion.

In certain embodiments, the carbon atom substituents are independently halogen, substituted or unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, —OR^(aa), —SR^(aa), —N(R^(bb))₂, —CN, —SCN, —NO₂, —C(═O)R^(aa), —CO₂R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —OC(═O)R^(aa), —OCO₂R^(aa), —OC(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —NR^(bb)C(═O)R^(aa), —NR^(bb)CO₂R^(aa), or —NR^(bb)C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂. In certain embodiments, the carbon atom substituents are independently halogen, substituted or unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, —OR^(aa), —SR^(aa), —N(R^(bb))₂, —CN, —SCN, or —NO₂.

The term “halo” or “halogen” refers to fluorine (fluoro, —F), chlorine (chloro, —Cl), bromine (bromo, —Br), or iodine (iodo, —I).

The term “hydroxyl” or “hydroxy” refers to the group —OH. The term “substituted hydroxyl” or “substituted hydroxyl,” by extension, refers to a hydroxyl group wherein the oxygen atom directly attached to the parent molecule is substituted with a group other than hydrogen, and includes groups selected from —OR^(aa), —ON(R^(bb))₂, —OC(═O)SR^(aa), —OC(═O)R^(aa), —OCO₂R^(aa), —OC(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —OC(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —OC(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —OC(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —OS(═O)R^(aa), —OSO₂R^(aa), —OSi(R^(aa))₃, —OP(R^(cc))₂, —OP(R^(cc))₃, —OP(═O)₂R^(aa), —OP(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —OP(═O)(OR^(cc))₂, —OP(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂, and —OP(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, wherein R^(aa), R^(bb), and R^(cc) are as defined herein.

The term “thiol” or “thio” refers to the group —SH. The term “substituted thiol” or “substituted thio,” by extension, refers to a thiol group wherein the sulfur atom directly attached to the parent molecule is substituted with a group other than hydrogen, and includes groups selected from —SR^(aa), —S═SR^(cc), —SC(═S)SR^(aa), —SC(═O)SR^(aa), —SC(═O)OR^(aa), and —SC(═O)R^(aa), wherein R^(a) and R^(cc) are as defined herein.

The term “amino” refers to the group —NH₂. The term “substituted amino,” by extension, refers to a monosubstituted amino, a disubstituted amino, or a trisubstituted amino. In certain embodiments, the “substituted amino” is a monosubstituted amino or a disubstituted amino group.

The term “carbonyl” refers a group wherein the carbon directly attached to the parent molecule is sp² hybridized, and is substituted with an oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atom, e.g., a group selected from ketones (—C(═O)R^(aa)), carboxylic acids (—CO₂H), aldehydes (—CHO), esters (—CO₂R^(aa), —C(═O)SR^(aa), —C(═S)SR^(aa)), amides (—C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)NR^(bb)SO₂R^(aa), —C(═S)N(R^(bb))₂), and imines (—C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa)), —C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂), wherein R^(a) and R^(bb) are as defined herein.

The term “silyl” refers to the group —Si(R^(aa))₃, wherein R^(a) is as defined herein.

The term “boronyl” refers to boranes, boronic acids, boronic esters, borinic acids, and borinic esters, e.g., boronyl groups of the formula —B(R^(aa))₂, —B(OR^(cc))₂, and —BR^(aa)(OR^(cc)), wherein R^(aa) and R^(cc) are as defined herein.

The term “oxo” refers to the group ═O, and the term “thiooxo” refers to the group ═S.

Nitrogen atoms can be substituted or unsubstituted as valency permits, and include primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary nitrogen atoms. Exemplary nitrogen atom substituents include, but are not limited to, hydrogen, —OH, —OR^(aa), —N(R^(cc))₂, —CN, —C(═O)R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(cc))₂, —CO₂R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂R^(cc), —SO₂OR^(cc), —SOR^(aa), —C(═S)N(R^(cc))₂, —C(═O)SR^(cc), —C(═S)SR^(cc), —P(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(cc))₂, —P(═O)(NR^(cc))₂, C₁₋₁₀ alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, heteroC₁₋₁₀alkyl, heteroC₂₋₁₀alkenyl, heteroC₂₋₁₀alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two R^(cc) groups attached to an N atom are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups, and wherein R^(aa), R^(bb), R^(cc) and R^(dd) are as defined above.

In certain embodiments, the substituent present on the nitrogen atom is an nitrogen protecting group (also referred to herein as an “amino protecting group”). Nitrogen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, —OH, —OR^(aa), —N(R^(cc))₂, —C(═O)R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(cc))₂, —CO₂R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂R^(cc), —SO₂OR^(cc), —SOR^(aa), —C(═S)N(R^(cc))₂, —C(═O)SR^(cc), —C(═S)SR^(aa), C₁₋₁₀ alkyl (e.g., aralkyl, heteroaralkyl), C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, heteroC₁₋₁₀ alkyl, heteroC₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, heteroC₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl groups, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aralkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups, and wherein R^(aa), R^(bb), R^(cc) and R^(dd) are as defined herein. Nitrogen protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3^(rd) edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference.

For example, nitrogen protecting groups such as amide groups (e.g., —C(═O)R^(aa)) include, but are not limited to, formamide, acetamide, chloroacetamide, trichloroacetamide, trifluoroacetamide, phenylacetamide, 3-phenylpropanamide, picolinamide, 3-pyridylcarboxamide, N-benzoylphenylalanyl derivative, benzamide, p-phenylbenzamide, o-nitophenylacetamide, o-nitrophenoxyacetamide, acetoacetamide, (N′-dithiobenzyloxyacylamino)acetamide, 3-(p-hydroxyphenyl)propanamide, 3-(o-nitrophenyl)propanamide, 2-methyl-2-(o-nitrophenoxy)propanamide, 2-methyl-2-(o-phenylazophenoxy)propanamide, 4-chlorobutanamide, 3-methyl-3-nitrobutanamide, o-nitrocinnamide, N-acetylmethionine derivative, o-nitrobenzamide, and o-(benzoyloxymethyl)benzamide.

Nitrogen protecting groups such as carbamate groups (e.g., —C(═O)OR^(aa)) include, but are not limited to, methyl carbamate, ethyl carbamante, 9-fluorenylmethyl carbamate (Fmoc), 9-(2-sulfo)fluorenylmethyl carbamate, 9-(2,7-dibromo)fluoroenylmethyl carbamate, 2,7-di-t-butyl-[9-(10,10-dioxo-10,10,10,10,10-tetrahydrothioxanthyl)]methyl carbamate (DBD-Tmoc), 4-methoxyphenacyl carbamate (Phenoc), 2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbamate (Troc), 2-trimethylsilylethyl carbamate (Teoc), 2-phenylethyl carbamate (hZ), 1-(1-adamantyl)-1-methylethyl carbamate (Adpoc), 1,1-dimethyl-2-haloethyl carbamate, 1,1-dimethyl-2,2-dibromoethyl carbamate (DB-t-BOC), 1,1-dimethyl-2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbamate (TCBOC), 1-methyl-1-(4-biphenylyl)ethyl carbamate (Bpoc), 1-(3,5-di-t-butylphenyl)-1-methylethyl carbamate (t-Bumeoc), 2-(2′- and 4′-pyridyl)ethyl carbamate (Pyoc), 2-(N,N-dicyclohexylcarboxamido)ethyl carbamate, t-butyl carbamate (BOC or Boc), 1-adamantyl carbamate (Adoc), vinyl carbamate (Voc), allyl carbamate (Alloc), 1-isopropylallyl carbamate (Ipaoc), cinnamyl carbamate (Coc), 4-nitrocinnamyl carbamate (Noc), 8-quinolyl carbamate, N-hydroxypiperidinyl carbamate, alkyldithio carbamate, benzyl carbamate (Cbz), p-methoxybenzyl carbamate (Moz), p-nitobenzyl carbamate, p-bromobenzyl carbamate, p-chlorobenzyl carbamate, 2,4-dichlorobenzyl carbamate, 4-methylsulfinylbenzyl carbamate (Msz), 9-anthrylmethyl carbamate, diphenylmethyl carbamate, 2-methylthioethyl carbamate, 2-methylsulfonylethyl carbamate, 2-(p-toluenesulfonyl)ethyl carbamate, [2-(1,3-dithianyl)]methyl carbamate (Dmoc), 4-methylthiophenyl carbamate (Mtpc), 2,4-dimethylthiophenyl carbamate (Bmpc), 2-phosphonioethyl carbamate (Peoc), 2-triphenylphosphonioisopropyl carbamate (Ppoc), 1,1-dimethyl-2-cyanoethyl carbamate, m-chloro-p-acyloxybenzyl carbamate, p-(dihydroxyboryl)benzyl carbamate, 5-benzisoxazolylmethyl carbamate, 2-(trifluoromethyl)-6-chromonylmethyl carbamate (Tcroc), m-nitrophenyl carbamate, 3,5-dimethoxybenzyl carbamate, o-nitrobenzyl carbamate, 3,4-dimethoxy-6-nitrobenzyl carbamate, phenyl(o-nitrophenyl)methyl carbamate, t-amyl carbamate, S-benzyl thiocarbamate, p-cyanobenzyl carbamate, cyclobutyl carbamate, cyclohexyl carbamate, cyclopentyl carbamate, cyclopropylmethyl carbamate, p-decyloxybenzyl carbamate, 2,2-dimethoxyacylvinyl carbamate, o-(N,N-dimethylcarboxamido)benzyl carbamate, 1,1-dimethyl-3-(N,N-dimethylcarboxamido)propyl carbamate, 1,1-dimethylpropynyl carbamate, di(2-pyridyl)methyl carbamate, 2-furanylmethyl carbamate, 2-iodoethyl carbamate, isoborynl carbamate, isobutyl carbamate, isonicotinyl carbamate, p-(p′-methoxyphenylazo)benzyl carbamate, 1-methylcyclobutyl carbamate, 1-methylcyclohexyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-cyclopropylmethyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-(3,5-dimethoxyphenyl)ethyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-(p-phenylazophenyl)ethyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-phenylethyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-(4-pyridyl)ethyl carbamate, phenyl carbamate, p-(phenylazo)benzyl carbamate, 2,4,6-tri-t-butylphenyl carbamate, 4-(trimethylammonium)benzyl carbamate, and 2,4,6-trimethylbenzyl carbamate.

Nitrogen protecting groups such as sulfonamide groups (e.g., —S(═O)₂R) include, but are not limited to, p-toluenesulfonamide (Ts), benzenesulfonamide, 2,3,6,-trimethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mtr), 2,4,6-trimethoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mtb), 2,6-dimethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Pme), 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mte), 4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mbs), 2,4,6-trimethylbenzenesulfonamide (Mts), 2,6-dimethoxy-4-methylbenzenesulfonamide (iMds), 2,2,5,7,8-pentamethylchroman-6-sulfonamide (Pmc), methanesulfonamide (Ms), β-trimethylsilylethanesulfonamide (SES), 9-anthracenesulfonamide, 4-(4′,8′-dimethoxynaphthylmethyl)benzenesulfonamide (DNMBS), benzylsulfonamide, trifluoromethylsulfonamide, and phenacylsulfonamide.

Other nitrogen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, phenothiazinyl-(10)-acyl derivative, N′-p-toluenesulfonylaminoacyl derivative, N′-phenylaminothioacyl derivative, N-benzoylphenylalanyl derivative, N-acetylmethionine derivative, 4,5-diphenyl-3-oxazolin-2-one, N-phthalimide, N-dithiasuccinimide (Dts), N-2,3-diphenylmaleimide, N-2,5-dimethylpyrrole, N-1,1,4,4-tetramethyldisilylazacyclopentane adduct (STABASE), 5-substituted 1,3-dimethyl-1,3,5-triazacyclohexan-2-one, 5-substituted 1,3-dibenzyl-1,3,5-triazacyclohexan-2-one, 1-substituted 3,5-dinitro-4-pyridone, N-methylamine, N-allylamine, N-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy]methylamine (SEM), N-3-acetoxypropylamine, N-(1-isopropyl-4-nitro-2-oxo-3-pyroolin-3-yl)amine, quaternary ammonium salts, N-benzylamine, N-di(4-methoxyphenyl)methylamine, N-5-dibenzosuberylamine, N-triphenylmethylamine (Tr), N-[(4-methoxyphenyl)diphenylmethyl]amine (MMTr), N-9-phenylfluorenylamine (PhF), N-2,7-dichloro-9-fluorenylmethyleneamine, N-ferrocenylmethylamino (Fcm), N-2-picolylamino N′-oxide, N-1,1-dimethylthiomethyleneamine, N-benzylideneamine, N-p-methoxybenzylideneamine, N-diphenylmethyleneamine, N-[(2-pyridyl)mesityl]methyleneamine, N—(N′,N′-dimethylaminomethylene)amine, N,N′-isopropylidenediamine, N-p-nitrobenzylideneamine, N-salicylideneamine, N-5-chlorosalicylideneamine, N-(5-chloro-2-hydroxyphenyl)phenylmethyleneamine, N-cyclohexylideneamine, N-(5,5-dimethyl-3-oxo-1-cyclohexenyl)amine, N-borane derivative, N-diphenylborinic acid derivative, N-[phenyl(pentaacylchromium- or tungsten)acyl]amine, N-copper chelate, N-zinc chelate, N-nitroamine, N-nitrosoamine, amine N-oxide, diphenylphosphinamide (Dpp), dimethylthiophosphinamide (Mpt), diphenylthiophosphinamide (Ppt), dialkyl phosphoramidates, dibenzyl phosphoramidate, diphenyl phosphoramidate, benzenesulfenamide, o-nitrobenzenesulfenamide (Nps), 2,4-dinitrobenzenesulfenamide, pentachlorobenzenesulfenamide, 2-nitro-4-methoxybenzenesulfenamide, triphenylmethylsulfenamide, and 3-nitropyridinesulfenamide (Npys).

In certain embodiments, the substituent present on an oxygen atom is an oxygen protecting group (also referred to herein as an “hydroxyl protecting group”). Oxygen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, —R^(aa), —N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)SR^(aa), —C(═O)R^(aa), —CO₂R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —S(═O)R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —Si(R^(aa))₃, —P(R^(cc))₂, —P(R^(cc))₃, —P(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —P(═O)(OR^(cc))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂, and —P(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, wherein R^(aa), R^(bb), and R^(cc) are as defined herein. Oxygen protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3^(rd) edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference.

Exemplary oxygen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, methoxylmethyl (MOM), methylthiomethyl (MTM), t-butylthiomethyl, (phenyldimethylsilyl)methoxymethyl (SMOM), benzyloxymethyl (BOM), p-methoxybenzyloxymethyl (PMBM), (4-methoxyphenoxy)methyl (p-AOM), guaiacolmethyl (GUM), t-butoxymethyl, 4-pentenyloxymethyl (POM), siloxymethyl, 2-methoxyethoxymethyl (MEM), 2,2,2-trichloroethoxymethyl, bis(2-chloroethoxy)methyl, 2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxymethyl (SEMOR), tetrahydropyranyl (THP), 3-bromotetrahydropyranyl, tetrahydrothiopyranyl, 1-methoxycyclohexyl, 4-methoxytetrahydropyranyl (MTHP), 4-methoxytetrahydrothiopyranyl, 4-methoxytetrahydrothiopyranyl S,S-dioxide, 1-[(2-chloro-4-methyl)phenyl]-4-methoxypiperidin-4-yl (CTMP), 1,4-dioxan-2-yl, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothiofuranyl, 2,3,3a,4,5,6,7,7a-octahydro-7,8,8-trimethyl-4,7-methanobenzofuran-2-yl, 1-ethoxyethyl, 1-(2-chloroethoxy)ethyl, 1-methyl-1-methoxyethyl, 1-methyl-1-benzyloxyethyl, 1-methyl-1-benzyloxy-2-fluoroethyl, 2,2,2-trichloroethyl, 2-trimethylsilylethyl, 2-(phenylselenyl)ethyl, t-butyl, allyl, p-chlorophenyl, p-methoxyphenyl, 2,4-dinitrophenyl, benzyl (Bn), p-methoxybenzyl, 3,4-dimethoxybenzyl, o-nitrobenzyl, p-nitrobenzyl, p-halobenzyl, 2,6-dichlorobenzyl, p-cyanobenzyl, p-phenylbenzyl, 2-picolyl, 4-picolyl, 3-methyl-2-picolyl N-oxido, diphenylmethyl, p,p′-dinitrobenzhydryl, 5-dibenzosuberyl, triphenylmethyl, co-naphthyldiphenylmethyl, p-methoxyphenyldiphenylmethyl, di(p-methoxyphenyl)phenylmethyl, tri(p-methoxyphenyl)methyl, 4-(4′-bromophenacyloxyphenyl)diphenylmethyl, 4,4′,4″-tris(4,5-dichlorophthalimidophenyl)methyl, 4,4′,4″-tris(levulinoyloxyphenyl)methyl, 4,4′,4″-tris(benzoyloxyphenyl)methyl, 3-(imidazol-1-yl)bis(4′,4″-dimethoxyphenyl)methyl, 1,1-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-1′-pyrenylmethyl, 9-anthryl, 9-(9-phenyl)xanthenyl, 9-(9-phenyl-10-oxo)anthryl, 1,3-benzodithiolan-2-yl, benzisothiazolyl S,S-dioxido, trimethylsilyl (TMS), triethylsilyl (TES), triisopropylsilyl (TIPS), dimethylisopropylsilyl (IPDMS), diethylisopropylsilyl (DEIPS), dimethylthexylsilyl, t-butyldimethylsilyl (TBDMS), t-butyldiphenylsilyl (TBDPS), tribenzylsilyl, tri-p-xylylsilyl, triphenylsilyl, diphenylmethylsilyl (DPMS), t-butylmethoxyphenylsilyl (TBMPS), formate, benzoylformate, acetate, chloroacetate, dichloroacetate, trichloroacetate, trifluoroacetate, methoxyacetate, triphenylmethoxyacetate, phenoxyacetate, p-chlorophenoxyacetate, 3-phenylpropionate, 4-oxopentanoate (levulinate), 4,4-(ethylenedithio)pentanoate (levulinoyldithioacetal), pivaloate, adamantoate, crotonate, 4-methoxycrotonate, benzoate, p-phenylbenzoate, 2,4,6-trimethylbenzoate (mesitoate), methyl carbonate, 9-fluorenylmethyl carbonate (Fmoc), ethyl carbonate, 2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbonate (Troc), 2-(trimethylsilyl)ethyl carbonate (TMSEC), 2-(phenylsulfonyl) ethyl carbonate (Psec), 2-(triphenylphosphonio) ethyl carbonate (Peoc), isobutyl carbonate, vinyl carbonate, allyl carbonate, t-butyl carbonate (BOC or Boc), p-nitrophenyl carbonate, benzyl carbonate, p-methoxybenzyl carbonate, 3,4-dimethoxybenzyl carbonate, o-nitrobenzyl carbonate, p-nitrobenzyl carbonate, S-benzyl thiocarbonate, 4-ethoxy-1-napththyl carbonate, methyl dithiocarbonate, 2-iodobenzoate, 4-azidobutyrate, 4-nitro-4-methylpentanoate, o-(dibromomethyl)benzoate, 2-formylbenzenesulfonate, 2-(methylthiomethoxy)ethyl, 4-(methylthiomethoxy)butyrate, 2-(methylthiomethoxymethyl)benzoate, 2,6-dichloro-4-methylphenoxyacetate, 2,6-dichloro-4-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl)phenoxyacetate, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylpropyl)phenoxyacetate, chlorodiphenylacetate, isobutyrate, monosuccinoate, (E)-2-methyl-2-butenoate, o-(methoxyacyl)benzoate, α-naphthoate, nitrate, alkyl N,N,N′,N′-tetramethylphosphorodiamidate, alkyl N-phenylcarbamate, borate, dimethylphosphinothioyl, alkyl 2,4-dinitrophenylsulfenate, sulfate, methanesulfonate (mesylate), benzylsulfonate, and tosylate (Ts).

In certain embodiments, the substituent present on a sulfur atom is a sulfur protecting group (also referred to as a “thiol protecting group”). Sulfur protecting groups include, but are not limited to, —R^(aa), —N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)SR^(aa), —C(═O)R^(aa), —CO₂R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —S(═O)R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —Si(R^(aa))₃, —P(R^(cc))₂, —P(R^(cc))₃, —P(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —P(═O)(OR^(cc))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂, and —P(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, wherein R^(aa), R^(bb), and R^(cc) are as defined herein. Sulfur protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3^(rd) edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference.

As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable” refers to a material, such as a carrier or diluent, which does not abrogate the biological activity or properties of the compound, and is relatively non-toxic, i.e., the material may be administered to an individual without causing undesirable biological effects or interacting in a deleterious manner with any of the components of the composition in which it is contained.

As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable salt” refers to derivatives of the disclosed compounds wherein the parent compound is modified by converting an existing acid or base moiety to its salt form. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable salts include, but are not limited to, mineral or organic acid salts of basic residues such as amines; alkali or organic salts of acidic residues such as carboxylic acids; and the like. The pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the present invention include the conventional non-toxic salts of the parent compound formed, for example, from non-toxic inorganic or organic acids. The pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the present invention can be synthesized from the parent compound which contains a basic or acidic moiety by conventional chemical methods. Generally, such salts can be prepared by reacting the free acid or base forms of these compounds with a stoichiometric amount of the appropriate base or acid in water or in an organic solvent, or in a mixture of the two; generally, nonaqueous media like ether, ethyl acetate, ethanol, isopropanol, or acetonitrile are preferred. The salts can be prepared in situ during the final isolation and purification of the compounds of the invention, or separately by reacting a free base or free acid function with a suitable reagent, as described generally below. For example, a free base function can be reacted with a suitable acid. Furthermore, where the compounds of the invention carry an acidic moiety, suitable pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof may, include metal salts such as alkali metal salts, e.g. sodium or potassium salts; and alkaline earth metal salts, e.g. calcium or magnesium salts. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable, nontoxic acid addition salts are salts of an amino group formed with inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid and perchloric acid or with organic acids such as acetic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, succinic acid or malonic acid or by using other methods used in the art such as ion exchange. Other pharmaceutically acceptable salts include adipate, alginate, ascorbate, aspartate, benzenesulfonate, benzoate, bisulfate, borate, butyrate, camphorate, camphorsulfonate, citrate, cyclopentanepropionate, digluconate, dodecylsulfate, ethanesulfonate, formate, fumarate, glucoheptonate, glycerophosphate, gluconate, hernisulfate, heptanoate, hexanoate, hydroiodide, 2-hydroxy-ethanesulfonate, lactobionate, lactate, laurate, lauryl sulfate, malate, maleate, malonate, methanesulfonate, 2-naphthalenesulfonate, nicotinate, nitrate, oleate, oxalate, palmitate, pamoate, pectinate, persulfate, 3-phenylpropionate, phosphate, picrate, pivalate, propionate, stearate, succinate, sulfate, tartrate, thiocyanate, p-toluenesulfonate, undecanoate, valerate salts, and the like. Representative alkali or alkaline earth metal salts include sodium, lithium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and the like. Further pharmaceutically acceptable salts include, when appropriate, nontoxic ammonium, quaternary ammonium, and amine cations formed using counterions such as halide, hydroxide, carboxylate, sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, lower alkyl sulfonate and aryl sulfonate.

Additionally, as used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable ester” refers to esters that hydrolyze in vivo and include those that break down readily in the human body to leave the parent compound or a salt thereof. Suitable ester groups include, for example, those derived from pharmaceutically acceptable aliphatic carboxylic acids, particularly alkanoic, alkenoic, cycloalkanoic and alkanedioic acids, in which each alkyl or alkenyl moeity advantageously has not more than 6 carbon atoms. Examples of particular esters include formates, acetates, propionates, butyrates, acrylates and ethylsuccinates.

Furthermore, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable prodrugs” as used herein refers to those prodrugs of the compounds of the present invention which are, within the scope of sound medical judgment, suitable for use in contact with the issues of humans and lower animals with undue toxicity, irritation, allergic response, and the like, commensurate with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio, and effective for their intended use, as well as the zwitterionic forms, where possible, of the compounds of the invention. The term “prodrug” refers to compounds that are rapidly transformed in vivo to yield the parent compound of the above formula, for example by hydrolysis in blood. A thorough discussion is provided in T. Higuchi and V. Stella, Pro-drugs as Novel Delivery Systems, Vol. 14 of the A.C.S. Symposium Series, and in Edward B. Roche, ed., Bioreversible Carriers in Drug Design, American Pharmaceutical Association and Pergamon Press, 1987, both of which are incorporated herein by reference.

Lists of suitable salts are found in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 17th ed., Mack Publishing Company, Easton, Pa., 1985, p. 1418 and Journal of Pharmaceutical Science, 66, 2 (1977), each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” means a pharmaceutically acceptable material, composition or carrier, such as a liquid or solid filler, stabilizer, dispersing agent, suspending agent, diluent, excipient, thickening agent, solvent or encapsulating material, involved in carrying or transporting a compound useful within the invention within or to the patient such that it may perform its intended function. Typically, such constructs are carried or transported from one organ, or portion of the body, to another organ, or portion of the body. Each carrier must be “acceptable” in the sense of being compatible with the other ingredients of the formulation, including the compound useful within the invention, and not injurious to the patient. Some examples of materials that may serve as pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include: sugars, such as lactose, glucose and sucrose; starches, such as corn starch and potato starch; cellulose, and its derivatives, such as sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose and cellulose acetate; powdered tragacanth; malt; gelatin; talc; excipients, such as cocoa butter and suppository waxes; oils, such as peanut oil, cottonseed oil, safflower oil, sesame oil, olive oil, corn oil and soybean oil; glycols, such as propylene glycol; polyols, such as glycerin, sorbitol, mannitol and polyethylene glycol; esters, such as ethyl oleate and ethyl laurate; agar; buffering agents, such as magnesium hydroxide and aluminum hydroxide; surface active agents; alginic acid; pyrogen-free water; isotonic saline; Ringer's solution; ethyl alcohol; phosphate buffer solutions; and other non-toxic compatible substances employed in pharmaceutical formulations.

As used herein, “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” also includes any and all coatings, antibacterial and antifungal agents, and absorption delaying agents, and the like that are compatible with the activity of the compound useful within the invention, and are physiologically acceptable to the patient. Supplementary active compounds may also be incorporated into the compositions. The “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” may further include a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of the compound useful within the invention. Other additional ingredients that may be included in the pharmaceutical compositions used in the practice of the invention are known in the art and described, for example in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences (Genaro, Ed., Mack Publishing Co., 1985, Easton, Pa.), which is incorporated herein by reference.

The term “small molecule” refers to molecules, whether naturally-occurring or artificially created (e.g., via chemical synthesis) that have a relatively low molecular weight. Typically, a small molecule is an organic compound (i.e., it contains carbon). The small molecule may contain multiple carbon-carbon bonds, stereocenters, and other functional groups (e.g., amines, hydroxyl, carbonyls, and heterocyclic rings, etc.). In certain embodiments, the molecular weight of a small molecule is not more than about 1,000 g/mol, not more than about 900 g/mol, not more than about 800 g/mol, not more than about 700 g/mol, not more than about 600 g/mol, not more than about 500 g/mol, not more than about 400 g/mol, not more than about 300 g/mol, not more than about 200 g/mol, or not more than about 100 g/mol. In certain embodiments, the molecular weight of a small molecule is at least about 100 g/mol, at least about 200 g/mol, at least about 300 g/mol, at least about 400 g/mol, at least about 500 g/mol, at least about 600 g/mol, at least about 700 g/mol, at least about 800 g/mol, or at least about 900 g/mol, or at least about 1,000 g/mol. Combinations of the above ranges (e.g., at least about 200 g/mol and not more than about 500 g/mol) are also possible. In certain embodiments, the small molecule is a therapeutically active agent such as a drug (e.g., a molecule approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as provided in the Code of Federal Regulations (C.F.R.)). The small molecule may also be complexed with one or more metal atoms and/or metal ions. In this instance, the small molecule is also referred to as a “small organometallic molecule.” Preferred small molecules are biologically active in that they produce a biological effect in animals, preferably mammals, more preferably humans. Small molecules include, but are not limited to, radionuclides and imaging agents. In certain embodiments, the small molecule is a drug. Preferably, though not necessarily, the drug is one that has already been deemed safe and effective for use in humans or animals by the appropriate governmental agency or regulatory body. For example, drugs approved for human use are listed by the FDA under 21 C.F.R. §§ 330.5, 331 through 361, and 440 through 460, incorporated herein by reference; drugs for veterinary use are listed by the FDA under 21 C.F.R. §§ 500 through 589, incorporated herein by reference. All listed drugs are considered acceptable for use in accordance with the present invention.

As used herein, “mediate” refers to the action of a compound (e.g., a small molecule, a gene, or a protein, such as a receptor or enzyme), whereby such action brings about, or contributes to, an effect.

A “proliferative disease” refers to a disease that occurs due to abnormal growth or extension by the multiplication of cells (Walker, Cambridge Dictionary of Biology; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1990). A proliferative disease may be associated with: 1) the pathological proliferation of normally quiescent cells; 2) the pathological migration of cells from their normal location (e.g., metastasis of neoplastic cells); 3) the pathological expression of proteolytic enzymes such as the matrix metalloproteinases (e.g., collagenases, gelatinases, and elastases); or 4) the pathological angiogenesis as in proliferative retinopathy and tumor metastasis. Exemplary proliferative diseases include cancers (i.e., “malignant neoplasms”), benign neoplasms, angiogenesis, inflammatory diseases, and autoimmune diseases.

The terms “deregulated” or “deregulation” refer to a state or condition wherein the regulation of a gene or protein has been altered abrogated such that the level or activity of the gene product is altered or modified.

The terms “dysregulated” or “dysregulation” refer to a dysfunctional level or activity of a gene product, which may be associated with an undesirable condition or conditions.

The term “gene” refers to a nucleic acid fragment that expresses a protein, including regulatory sequences preceding (5′ non-coding sequences) and following (3′ non-coding sequences) the coding sequence. “Native gene” refers to a gene as found in nature with its own regulatory sequences. “Chimeric gene” or “chimeric construct” refers to any gene or a construct, not a native gene, comprising regulatory and coding sequences that are not found together in nature. Accordingly, a chimeric gene or chimeric construct may comprise regulatory sequences and coding sequences that are derived from different sources, or regulatory sequences and coding sequences derived from the same source, but arranged in a manner different than that found in nature. “Endogenous gene” refers to a native gene in its natural location in the genome of an organism. A “foreign” gene refers to a gene not normally found in the host organism, but which is introduced into the host organism by gene transfer. Foreign genes can comprise native genes inserted into a non-native organism, or chimeric genes. A “transgene” is a gene that has been introduced into the genome by a transformation procedure.

The term “gene product” (also referred to herein as “gene expression product” or “expression product”) encompasses products resulting from expression of a gene, such as RNA transcribed from a gene and polypeptides arising from translation of such RNA. It will be appreciated that certain gene products may undergo processing or modification, e.g., in a cell. For example, RNA transcripts may be spliced, polyadenylated, etc., prior to mRNA translation, and/or polypeptides may undergo co-translational or post-translational processing such as removal of secretion signal sequences, removal of organelle targeting sequences, or modifications such as phosphorylation, fatty acylation, etc. The term “gene product” encompasses such processed or modified forms. Genomic, mRNA, polypeptide sequences from a variety of species, including human, are known in the art and are available in publicly accessible databases such as those available at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (www.ncbi.nih.gov) or Universal Protein Resource (www.uniprot.org). Databases include, e.g., GenBank, RefSeq, Gene, UniProtKB/SwissProt, UniProtKB/Trembl, and the like. In general, sequences, e.g., mRNA and polypeptide sequences, in the NCBI Reference Sequence database may be used as gene product sequences for a gene of interest. It will be appreciated that multiple alleles of a gene may exist among individuals of the same species. For example, differences in one or more nucleotides (e.g., up to about 1%, 2%, 3-5% of the nucleotides) of the nucleic acids encoding a particular protein may exist among individuals of a given species. Due to the degeneracy of the genetic code, such variations often do not alter the encoded amino acid sequence, although DNA polymorphisms that lead to changes in the sequence of the encoded proteins can exist. Examples of polymorphic variants can be found in, e.g., the Single Nucleotide Polymorphism Database (dbSNP), available at the NCBI website at www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/SNP/[Sherry, S. T., et al. (2001) dbSNP: The NCBI database of genetic variation. Nucl Acids Res, 29: 308-311; Kitts, A. and Sherry, S. (2009) The single nucleotide polymorphism database (dbSNP) of nucleotide sequence variation. In: The NCBI Handbook (Internet); McEntyre, J., Ostell, J., editors. Bethesda (Md.): National Center for Biotechnology Information (US); 2002 (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bookshelf/br.fcgi?book=handbook&part=ch5)]. Multiple isoforms of certain proteins may exist, e.g., as a result of alternative RNA splicing or editing. In general, where aspects of this disclosure pertain to a gene or gene product, embodiments pertaining to allelic variants or isoforms are encompassed, if applicable, unless indicated otherwise. Certain embodiments may be directed to particular sequence(s), e.g., particular allele(s) or isoform(s).

The term “inhibition”, “inhibiting”, “inhibit,” or “inhibitor” refers to the ability of a compound to reduce, slow, halt, and/or prevent activity of a particular biological process (e.g., AR-mediated gene expression) in a cell relative to vehicle.

“Modulate” as used herein means to decrease (e.g., inhibit, reduce, suppress) or increase (e.g., stimulate, activate, enhance) a level, response, property, activity, pathway, or process. A “modulator” is an agent capable of modulating a level, response, property, activity, pathway, or process. A modulator may be an inhibitor, antagonist, activator, or agonist. In some embodiments modulation may refer to an alteration, e.g., inhibition or increase, of the relevant level, response, property, activity, pathway, or process by at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99%.

Anti-cancer agents encompass biotherapeutic anti-cancer agents as well as chemotherapeutic agents. Exemplary biotherapeutic anti-cancer agents include, but are not limited to, interferons, cytokines (e.g., tumor necrosis factor, interferon α, interferon γ), vaccines, hematopoietic growth factors, monoclonal serotherapy, immunostimulants and/or immunodulatory agents (e.g., IL-1, 2, 4, 6, or 12), immune cell growth factors (e.g., GM-CSF) and antibodies (e.g. HERCEPTIN (trastuzumab), T-DM1, AVASTIN (bevacizumab), ERBITUX (cetuximab), VECTIBIX (panitumumab), RITUXAN (rituximab), BEXXAR (tositumomab)).

Exemplary chemotherapeutic agents include, but are not limited to, anti-estrogens (e.g. tamoxifen, raloxifene, and megestrol), LHRH agonists (e.g. goscrclin and leuprolide), antiandrogens (e.g. flutamide and bicalutamide), photodynamic therapies (e.g. vertoporfin (BPD-MA), phthalocyanine, photosensitizer Pc4, and demethoxy-hypocrellin A (2BA-2-DMHA)), nitrogen mustards (e.g. cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, trofosfamide, chlorambucil, estramustine, and melphalan), nitrosoureas (e.g. carmustine (BCNU) and lomustine (CCNU)), alkylsulphonates (e.g. busulfan and treosulfan), triazenes (e.g. dacarbazine, temozolomide), platinum containing compounds (e.g. cisplatin, carboplatin, oxaliplatin), vinca alkaloids (e.g. vincristine, vinblastine, vindesine, and vinorelbine), taxoids (e.g. paclitaxel or a paclitaxel equivalent such as nanoparticle albumin-bound paclitaxel (ABRAXANE), docosahexaenoic acid bound-paclitaxel (DHA-paclitaxel, Taxoprexin), polyglutamate bound-paclitaxel (PG-paclitaxel, paclitaxel poliglumex, CT-2103, XYOTAX), the tumor-activated prodrug (TAP) ANG1005 (Angiopep-2 bound to three molecules of paclitaxel), paclitaxel-EC-1 (paclitaxel bound to the erbB2-recognizing peptide EC-1), and glucose-conjugated paclitaxel, e.g., 2′-paclitaxel methyl 2-glucopyranosyl succinate; docetaxel, taxol), epipodophyllins (e.g. etoposide, etoposide phosphate, teniposide, topotecan, 9-aminocamptothecin, camptoirinotecan, irinotecan, crisnatol, mytomycin C), anti-metabolites, DHFR inhibitors (e.g. methotrexate, dichloromethotrexate, trimetrexate, edatrexate), IMP dehydrogenase inhibitors (e.g. mycophenolic acid, tiazofurin, ribavirin, and EICAR), ribonuclotide reductase inhibitors (e.g. hydroxyurea and deferoxamine), uracil analogs (e.g. 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), floxuridine, doxifluridine, ratitrexed, tegafur-uracil, capecitabine), cytosine analogs (e.g. cytarabine (ara C), cytosine arabinoside, and fludarabine), purine analogs (e.g. mercaptopurine and Thioguanine), Vitamin D3 analogs (e.g. EB 1089, CB 1093, and KH 1060), isoprenylation inhibitors (e.g. lovastatin), dopaminergic neurotoxins (e.g. 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion), cell cycle inhibitors (e.g. staurosporine), actinomycin (e.g. actinomycin D, dactinomycin), bleomycin (e.g. bleomycin A2, bleomycin B2, peplomycin), anthracycline (e.g. daunorubicin, doxorubicin, pegylated liposomal doxorubicin, idarubicin, epirubicin, pirarubicin, zorubicin, mitoxantrone), MDR inhibitors (e.g. verapamil), Ca²⁺ ATPase inhibitors (e.g. thapsigargin), imatinib, thalidomide, lenalidomide, tyrosine kinase inhibitors (e.g., axitinib (AG013736), bosutinib (SKI-606), cediranib (RECENTIN™, AZD2171), dasatinib (SPRYCEL®, BMS-354825), erlotinib (TARCEVA®), gefitinib (IRESSA®), imatinib (Gleevec®, CGP57148B, STI-571), lapatinib (TYKERB®, TYVERB®), lestaurtinib (CEP-701), neratinib (HKI-272), nilotinib (TASIGNA®), semaxanib (semaxinib, SU5416), sunitinib (SUTENT®, SU11248), toceranib (PALLADIA®), vandetanib (ZACTIMA®, ZD6474), vatalanib (PTK787, PTK/ZK), trastuzumab (HERCEPTIN®), bevacizumab (AVASTIN®), rituximab (RITUXAN®), cetuximab (ERBITUX®), panitumumab (VECTIBIX®), ranibizumab (Lucentis®), nilotinib (TASIGNA®), sorafenib (NEXAVAR®), everolimus (AFINITOR®), alemtuzumab (CAMPATH®), gemtuzumab ozogamicin (MYLOTARG®), temsirolimus (TORISEL®), ENMD-2076, PCI-32765, AC220, dovitinib lactate (TKI258, CHIR-258), BIBW 2992 (TOVOK™), SGX523, PF-04217903, PF(2)341066, PF-299804, BMS-777607, ABT-869, MP470, BIBF 1120 (VARGATEF®), AP24534, JNJ-26483327, MGCD265, DCC-2036, BMS-690154, CEP-11981, tivozanib (AV-951), OSI-930, MM-121, XL-184, XL-647, and/or XL228), proteasome inhibitors (e.g., bortezomib (VELCADE)), mTOR inhibitors (e.g., rapamycin, temsirolimus (CCI-779), everolimus (RAD-001), ridaforolimus, AP23573 (Ariad), AZD8055 (AstraZeneca), BEZ235 (Novartis), BGT226 (Norvartis), XL765 (Sanofi Aventis), PF-4691502 (Pfizer), GDC0980 (Genetech), SF1126 (Semafoe) and OSI(2)7 (OSI)), oblimersen, gemcitabine, carminomycin, leucovorin, pemetrexed, cyclophosphamide, dacarbazine, procarbizine, prednisolone, dexamethasone, campathecin, plicamycin, asparaginase, aminopterin, methopterin, porfiromycin, melphalan, leurosidine, leurosine, chlorambucil, trabectedin, procarbazine, discodermolide, carminomycin, aminopterin, and hexamethyl melamine.

The terms “agent” and “therapeutic agent” are used herein to refer to any substance, compound (e.g., molecule), supramolecular complex, material, or combination or mixture thereof. A compound may be any agent that can be represented by a chemical formula, chemical structure, or sequence. Example of agents, include, e.g., small molecules, polypeptides, nucleic acids (e.g., RNAi agents, antisense oligonucleotide, aptamers), lipids, polysaccharides, etc. In general, agents may be obtained using any suitable method known in the art. The ordinary skilled artisan will select an appropriate method based, e.g., on the nature of the agent. An agent may be at least partly purified. In some embodiments an agent may be provided as part of a composition, which may contain, e.g., a counter-ion, aqueous or non-aqueous diluent or carrier, buffer, preservative, or other ingredient, in addition to the agent, in various embodiments. In some embodiments an agent may be provided as a salt, ester, hydrate, or solvate. In some embodiments an agent is cell-permeable, e.g., within the range of typical agents that are taken up by cells and acts intracellularly, e.g., within mammalian cells, to produce a biological effect.

Certain compounds may exist in particular geometric or stereoisomeric forms. Such compounds, including cis- and trans-isomers, E- and Z-isomers, R- and S-enantiomers, diastereomers, (D)-isomers, (L)-isomers, (−)- and (+)-isomers, racemic mixtures thereof, and other mixtures thereof are encompassed by this disclosure in various embodiments unless otherwise indicated. Certain compounds may exist in a variety or protonation states, may have a variety of configurations, may exist as solvates [e.g., with water (i.e. hydrates) or common solvents] and/or may have different crystalline forms (e.g., polymorphs) or different tautomeric forms. Embodiments exhibiting such alternative protonation states, configurations, solvates, and forms are encompassed by the present disclosure where applicable.

The terms “assess,” “determine,” “evaluate,” and “assay” are used interchangeably herein to refer to any form of detection or measurement, and include determining whether a substance, signal, disease, condition, etc., is present or not. The result of an assessment may be expressed in qualitative and/or quantitative terms. Assessing may be relative or absolute. “Assessing the presence of” includes determining the amount of something that is present or determining whether it is present or absent.

A nucleotide or amino acid residue in a first nucleic acid or protein “corresponds to” a residue in a second nucleic acid or protein if the two residues perform one or more corresponding functions and/or are located at corresponding positions in the first and second nucleic acids or proteins. Corresponding functions are typically the same, equivalent, or substantially equivalent functions, taking into account differences in the environments of the two nucleic acids or proteins as appropriate. Residues at corresponding positions typically align with each other when the sequences of the two nucleic acids or proteins are aligned to maximize identity (allowing the introduction of gaps) using a sequence alignment algorithm or computer program such as those referred to below (see “Identity”) and/or are located at positions such that when the 3-dimensional structures of the proteins is superimposed the residues overlap or occupy structurally equivalent positions and/or form the same, equivalent, or substantially equivalent intramolecular and/or intermolecular contacts or bonds (e.g., hydrogen bonds). The structures may be experimentally determined (e.g., by X-ray crystallography or NMR) or predicted (e.g., using structure prediction or molecular modeling software). An alignment may be over the entire length of one or more of the aligned nucleic acid or polypeptide sequences or over at least one protein domain (or nucleotide sequence encoding a protein domain). A “domain” of a protein is a distinct functional and/or structural unit of a protein, e.g., an independently folding unit of a polypeptide chain. In some embodiments a domain is a portion of a protein sequence identified as a domain in the Conserved Domain Database of the NCBI (Marchler-Bauer, A., et al. (2013) CDD: conserved domains and protein three-dimensional structure. Nucleic Acids Res, 41: D384-52). In some embodiments corresponding amino acids are the same in two sequences (e.g., a lysine residue, a threonine residue) or would be considered conservative substitutions for each other. Examples of corresponding residues include (i) the catalytic residues of two homologous enzymes and (ii) sites for post-translational modification of a particular type (e.g., phosphorylation) within corresponding structural or functional domains that have similar effects on the structure or function of homologous proteins.

“Identity” or “percent identity” is a measure of the extent to which the sequence of two or more nucleic acids or polypeptides is the same. The percent identity between a sequence of interest A and a second sequence B may be computed by aligning the sequences, allowing the introduction of gaps to maximize identity, determining the number of residues (nucleotides or amino acids) that are opposite an identical residue, dividing by the minimum of TG_(A) and TG_(B)(here TG_(A) and TG_(B) are the sum of the number of residues and internal gap positions in sequences A and B in the alignment), and multiplying by 100. When computing the number of identical residues needed to achieve a particular percent identity, fractions are to be rounded to the nearest whole number. Sequences can be aligned with the use of a variety of computer programs known in the art. For example, computer programs such as BLAST2, BLASTN, BLASTP, Gapped BLAST, etc., may be used to generate alignments and/or to obtain a percent identity. The algorithm of Karlin and Altschul (Karlin and Altschul, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 87: 22264-2268, 1990) modified as in Karlin and Altschul, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 90: 5873-5877, 1993 is incorporated into the NBLAST and XBLAST programs of Altschul et al. [Altschul, et al. (1990) J Mol Biol, 215: 403-410]. In some embodiments, to obtain gapped alignments for comparison purposes, Gapped BLAST is utilized as described in Altschul et al. [Altschul, et al. (1997) Nucleic Acids Res, 25: 3389-3402]. When utilizing BLAST and Gapped BLAST programs, the default parameters of the respective programs may be used. See the Web site having URL www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov and/or McGinnis, S. and Madden, T L, W20-W25 Nucleic Acids Research, 2004, Vol. 32, Web server issue. Other suitable programs include CLUSTALW [Thompson, J. D., Higgins, D. G., and Gibson, T. J. (1994) Nuc Acid Res, 22: 4673-4680], CLUSTAL Omega [Sievers, F., Wilm, A., Dineen, D., et al. (2011) Fast, scalable gernation of high-qulaity protein multiple sequence alignments using Clustal Omega. Mol Sys Biol, 7: doi:10.1038/msb.2011.75], and GAP (GCG Version 9.1; which implements the Needleman & Wunsch, 1970 algorithm [Needleman, S. B. and Wunsch, C. D. (1970) J Mol Biol, 48: 443-453]). Percent identity may be evaluated over a window of evaluation. In some embodiments a window of evaluation may have a length of at least 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or more, e.g., 100%, of the length of the shortest of the sequences being compared. In some embodiments a window of evaluation is at least 100; 200; 300; 400; 500; 600; 700; 800; 900; 1,000; 1,200; 1,500; 2,000; 2,500; 3,000; 3,500; 4,000; 4,500; or 5,000 amino acids. In some embodiments no more than 20%, 10%, 5%, or 1% of positions in either sequence or in both sequences over a window of evaluation are occupied by a gap. In some embodiments no more than 20%, 10%, 5%, or 1% of positions in either sequence or in both sequences are occupied by a gap.

“Detection reagent” refers to an agent that is useful to specifically detect a gene product, protein, or other analyte of interest, e.g., an agent that specifically binds to the gene product, protein, or other analyte. Examples of agents useful as detection reagents include, e.g., nucleic acid probes or primers that hybridize to RNA or DNA to be detected, antibodies, aptamers, or small molecule ligands that bind to polypeptides to be detected, and the like. In some embodiments a detection reagent comprises a label. In some embodiments a detection reagent is attached to a support. Such attachment may be covalent or noncovalent in various embodiments. Methods suitable for attaching detection reagents or analytes to supports will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art. A support may be a substantially planar or flat support or may be a particulate support, e.g., an approximately spherical support such as a microparticle (also referred to as a “bead”, “microsphere”), nanoparticle (or like terms), or population of microparticles. In some embodiments a support is a slide, chip, or filter. In some embodiments a support is at least a portion of an inner surface of a well or other vessel, channel, flow cell, or the like. A support may be rigid, flexible, solid, or semi-solid (e.g., gel). A support may be comprised of a variety of materials such as, for example, glass, quartz, plastic, metal, silicon, agarose, nylon, or paper. A support may be at least in part coated, e.g., with a polymer or substance comprising a reactive functional group suitable for attaching a detection reagent or analyte thereto. The term “detecting” encompasses any method that involves a detecting agent and any gene product, protein, or other analyte of interest.

An “effective amount” or “effective dose” of an agent (or composition containing such agent) refers to the amount sufficient to achieve a desired biological and/or pharmacological effect, e.g., when delivered to a cell or organism according to a selected administration form, route, and/or schedule. The phrases “effective amount” and “therapeutically effective amount” are used interchangeabley. As will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in this art, the absolute amount of a particular agent or composition that is effective may vary depending on such factors as the desired biological or pharmacological endpoint, the agent to be delivered, the target tissue, etc. Those of ordinary skill in the art will further understand that an “effective amount” may be contacted with cells or administered to a subject in a single dose, or through use of multiple doses, in various embodiments.

The term “expression” encompasses the processes by which nucleic acids (e.g., DNA) are transcribed to produce RNA, and (where applicable) RNA transcripts are processed and translated into polypeptides.

The terms “protein,” “peptide,” and “polypeptide” are used interchangeably herein and refer to a polymer of amino acid residues linked together by peptide (amide) bonds. The terms refer to a protein, peptide, or polypeptide of any size, structure, or function. Typically, a protein, peptide, or polypeptide will be at least three amino acids long. A protein, peptide, or polypeptide may refer to an individual protein or a collection of proteins. One or more of the amino acids in a protein, peptide, or polypeptide may be modified, for example, by the addition of a chemical entity such as a carbohydrate group, a hydroxyl group, a phosphate group, a farnesyl group, an isofarnesyl group, a fatty acid group, a linker for conjugation, functionalization, or other modification, etc. A protein, peptide, or polypeptide may also be a single molecule or may be a multi-molecular complex. A protein, peptide, or polypeptide may be just a fragment of a naturally occurring protein or peptide. A protein, peptide, or polypeptide may be naturally occurring, recombinant, or synthetic, or any combination thereof. A protein may comprise different domains, for example, a nucleic acid binding domain (e.g., the gRNA binding domain of Cas9 that directs the binding of the protein to a target site) and a nucleic acid cleavage domain. In some embodiments, a protein comprises a proteinaceous part, e.g., an amino acid sequence constituting a nucleic acid binding domain, and an organic compound, e.g., a compound that can act as a nucleic acid cleavage agent. In some embodiments, a protein is in a complex with, or is in association with, a nucleic acid, e.g., RNA. In some embodiments, a protein comprises a ligand binding domain. In some embodiments, a protein comprises an active site (e.g., site of biological or enzymatic activity). In some embodiments, a protein comprises an allosteric site (e.g., site of a protein that can bind to a ligand that can be remote from an active site). Any of the proteins provided herein may be produced by any method known in the art. For example, the proteins provided herein may be produced via recombinant protein expression and purification, which is especially suited for fusion proteins comprising a peptide linker. Methods for recombinant protein expression and purification are well known, and include those described by Green and Sambrook, Molecular Cloning. A Laboratory Manual [4^(th) ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (2012)], the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

As used herein, the term “purified” refers to agents that have been separated from most of the components with which they are associated in nature or when originally generated or with which they were associated prior to purification. In general, such purification involves action of the hand of man. Purified agents may be partially purified, substantially purified, or pure. Such agents may be, for example, at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or more than 99% pure. In some embodiments, a nucleic acid, polypeptide, or small molecule is purified such that it constitutes at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or more, of the total nucleic acid, polypeptide, or small molecule material, respectively, present in a preparation. In some embodiments, an organic substance, e.g., a nucleic acid, polypeptide, or small molecule, is purified such that it constitutes at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or more, of the total organic material present in a preparation. Purity may be based on, e.g., dry weight, size of peaks on a chromatography tracing (GC, HPLC, etc.), molecular abundance, electrophoretic methods, intensity of bands on a gel, spectroscopic data (e.g., NMR), elemental analysis, high throughput sequencing, mass spectrometry, or any art-accepted quantification method. In some embodiments, water, buffer substances, ions, and/or small molecules (e.g., synthetic precursors such as nucleotides or amino acids), can optionally be present in a purified preparation. A purified agent may be prepared by separating it from other substances (e.g., other cellular materials), or by producing it in such a manner to achieve a desired degree of purity. In some embodiments “partially purified” with respect to a molecule produced by a cell means that a molecule produced by a cell is no longer present within the cell, e.g., the cell has been lysed and, optionally, at least some of the cellular material (e.g., cell wall, cell membrane(s), cell organelle(s)) has been removed and/or the molecule has been separated or segregated from at least some molecules of the same type (protein, RNA, DNA, etc.) that were present in the lysate.

The term “sample” may be used to generally refer to an amount or portion of something. A sample may be a smaller quantity taken from a larger amount or entity; however, a complete specimen may also be referred to as a sample where appropriate. A sample is often intended to be similar to and representative of a larger amount of the entity of which it is a sample. In some embodiments a sample is a quantity of a substance that is or has been or is to be provided for assessment (e.g., testing, analysis, measurement) or use. A sample may be any biological specimen. In some embodiments, a sample is a cell lysate (e.g., a fluid comprising the contents of lysed cells). In some embodiments a sample comprises a body fluid such as blood, cerebrospinal fluid, (CSF), sputum, lymph, mucus, saliva, a glandular secretion, or urine. In some embodiments a sample comprises cells, tissue, or cellular material (e.g., material derived from cells, such as a cell lysate or fraction thereof). A sample may be obtained from (i.e., originates from, was initially removed from) a subject. Methods of obtaining biological samples from subjects are known in the art and include, e.g., tissue biopsy, such as excisional biopsy, incisional biopsy, core biopsy; fine needle aspiration biopsy; surgical excision, brushings; lavage; or collecting body fluids that may contain cells, such as blood, sputum, lymph, mucus, saliva, or urine. A sample is often intended to be similar to and representative of a larger amount of the entity of which it is a sample. A sample of a cell line comprises a limited number of cells of that cell line. In some embodiments a sample may be obtained from an individual who has been diagnosed with or is suspected of having a neurodegenerative disease. In some embodiments a sample is obtained from skin or blood. In some embodiments a sample contains at least some intact cells. In some embodiments a sample retains at least some of the microarchitecture of a tissue from which it was removed. A sample may be subjected to one or more processing steps, e.g., after having been obtained from a subject, and/or may be split into one or more portions. The term sample encompasses processed samples, portions of samples, etc., and such samples are, where applicable, considered to have been obtained from the subject from whom the initial sample was removed. A sample may be procured directly from a subject, or indirectly, e.g., by receiving the sample from one or more persons who procured the sample directly from the subject, e.g., by performing a biopsy, surgery, or other procedure on the subject. In some embodiments a sample may be assigned an identifier (ID), which may be used to identify the sample as it is transported, processed, analyzed, and/or stored. In some embodiments the sample ID corresponds to the subject from whom the sample originated and allows the sample and/or results obtained by assessing the sample to be matched with the subject.

In some embodiments the sample has an identifier affixed thereto.

The term “compound” as used herein encompasses any small molecule, peptide, nucleic acid, protein, or derivative thereof that may be used to modulate a target of interest (e.g., a transcription factor). In certain embodiments, a compound identified in the present disclosure is able to modulate the androgen receptor. The term “compound” and “agent” are used interchangeably.

A “subject” may be any vertebrate organism in various embodiments. A subject may be individual to whom an agent is administered, e.g., for experimental, diagnostic, and/or therapeutic purposes or from whom a sample is obtained or on whom a procedure is performed. In some embodiments a subject is a mammal, e.g. a human, non-human primate, or rodent (e.g., mouse, rat, rabbit). In some embodiments, a subject has been diagnosed with prostate cancer.

“Treat,” “treating,” and similar terms as used herein in the context of treating a subject refer to providing medical and/or surgical management of a subject. Treatment may include, but is not limited to, administering an age or composition (e.g., a pharmaceutical composition) to a subject. Treatment is typically undertaken in an effort to alter the course of a disease (which term is used to indicate any disease, disorder, syndrome or undesirable condition warranting or potentially warranting therapy) in a manner beneficial to the subject. The effect of treatment may include reversing, alleviating, reducing severity of, delaying the onset of, curing, inhibiting the progression of, and/or reducing the likelihood of occurrence or recurrence of the disease or one or more symptoms or manifestations of the disease. A therapeutic agent may be administered to a subject who has a disease or is at increased risk of developing a disease relative to a member of the general population. In some embodiments a therapeutic agent may be administered to a subject who has had a disease but no longer shows evidence of the disease. The agent may be administered e.g., to reduce the likelihood of recurrence of evident disease. A therapeutic agent may be administered prophylactically, i.e., before development of any symptom or manifestation of a disease. “Prophylactic treatment” refers to providing medical and/or surgical management to a subject who has not developed a disease or does not show evidence of a disease in order, e.g., to reduce the likelihood that the disease will occur or to reduce the severity of the disease should it occur. The subject may have been identified as being at risk of developing the disease (e.g., at increased risk relative to the general population or as having a risk factor that increases the likelihood of developing the disease.

“Expose,” “exposing,” and similar terms as used herein in the context of a biological receptor (e.g., an androgen receptor or variant thereof) refers to subjecting the biological receptor, or allowing the biological receptor to be subjected to an action, influence, or condition, e.g., the direct or indirect action or influence of a compound of the invention, or a condition created or maintained directly or indirectly by a compound of the invention.

“Contact,” “contacting,” and similar terms as used herein may refer to either direct or indirect contact, or both.

“Bind”, “binding,” and similar terms as used herein may refer to a direct interaction between a compound and a receptor, or fragment thereof, or an indirect interaction, for example, involving one or more interactome partners.

A “variant” of a particular polypeptide or polynucleotide has one or more additions, substitutions, and/or deletions with respect to the polypeptide or polynucleotide, which may be referred to as the “original polypeptide” or “original polynucleotide,” respectively. An addition may be an insertion or may be at either terminus. A variant may be shorter or longer than the original polypeptide or polynucleotide. The term “variant” encompasses “fragments”. A “fragment” is a continuous portion of a polypeptide or polynucleotide that is shorter than the original polypeptide. In some embodiments a variant comprises or consists of a fragment. In some embodiments a fragment or variant is at least 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or more as long as the original polypeptide or polynucleotide.

In some embodiments a variant is a biologically active variant, i.e., the variant at least in part retains at least one activity of the original polypeptide or polynucleotide. In some embodiments a variant at least in part retains more than one or substantially all known biologically significant activities of the original polypeptide or polynucleotide. An activity may be, e.g., a catalytic activity, binding activity, ability to perform or participate in a biological structure or process, etc. In some embodiments an activity of a variant may be at least 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or more, of the activity of the original polypeptide or polynucleotide, up to approximately 100%, approximately 125%, or approximately 150% of the activity of the original polypeptide or polynucleotide, in various embodiments. In some embodiments, a variant, e.g., a biologically active variant, comprises or consists of a polypeptide at least 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, or 100% identical to an original polypeptide over at least 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% of the original polypeptide. In some embodiments an alteration, e.g., a substitution or deletion, e.g., in a functional variant, does not alter or delete an amino acid or nucleotide that is known or predicted to be important for an activity, e.g., a known or predicted catalytic residue or residue involved in binding a substrate or cofactor. Variants may be tested in one or more suitable assays to assess activity.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings, which constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several exemplary embodiments of the invention and together with the description, serve to explain certain principles of the invention. The embodiments disclosed in the drawings are exemplary and do not limit the scope of this disclosure.

FIGS. 1A to 1B show that prostate cancer cell lines are sensitive to small molecules. The cell viability 48 hours after treatment with KARv1 (compound (1)) (FIG. 1A) and KARv1 negative control (FIG. 1B) are shown.

FIGS. 2A to 2B show that compound (1) stagnates prostate cancer cell proliferation. The relative proliferation at 72 hours (FIG. 2A) and the percent confluence (FIG. 2B) for different cancer cell lines with and without compound (1) treatment are shown.

FIGS. 3A to 3C show that compound (1) stagnates prostate cancer cell proliferation in PC3 (AR-) cell lines. The results for KARv1 treatment (FIG. 3A) and KARv1 negative control (FIG. 3B) are shown. The percent confluence with and without compound (1) treatment at 72 hours is also shown (FIG. 3C).

FIGS. 4A to 4C show that compound (1) stagnates prostate cancer cell proliferation in DU-145 (AR-) cell lines. The results for KARv1 treatment (FIG. 4A) and KARv1 negative control (FIG. 4B) are shown. The percent confluence with and without (1) treatment at 72 hours is also shown (FIG. 4C).

FIGS. 5A to 5C show that (1) stagnates prostate cancer cell proliferation in VCaP (AR+) cell lines. The results for KARv1 treatment (FIG. 5A) and KARv1 negative control (FIG. 5B) are shown. The percent confluence with and without (1) treatment at 72 hours is also shown (FIG. 5C).

FIGS. 6A to 6C show that (1) stagnates prostate cancer cell proliferation in LNCaP (AR+) cell lines. The results for KARv1 treatment (FIG. 6A) and KARv1 negative control (FIG. 6B) are shown. The percent confluence with and without (1) treatment at 72 hours is also shown (FIG. 6C).

FIGS. 7A to 7C show that (1) stagnates prostate cancer cell proliferation in 22Rv1 (AR+) cell lines. The results for KARv1 treatment (FIG. 7A) and KARv1 negative control (FIG. 7B) are shown. The percent confluence with and without (1) treatment at 72 hours is also shown (FIG. 7C).

FIGS. 8A to 8C show that (1) does not form aggregates at IC₅₀ in RPMI (FIG. 8A), DMSO (FIG. 8B), or PBS (FIG. 8C).

FIGS. 9A to 9C show that KARv2A does not form aggregates at IC₅₀ in RPMI (FIG. 9A), DMSO (FIG. 9B), or PBS (FIG. 9C).

FIGS. 10A to 10B show that KARv compounds modulate AR-mediated gene expression in both 22Rv1 (FIG. 10A) and VCaP-16 (FIG. 10B) cell lines. KARv2A and KARv2B represent the isolated endo or exo stereoisomers of KARv2. FIG. 10C shows the structure of KARv3 used in FIGS. 10A and O1B.

FIGS. 11A to 11B show that KARv compounds decrease AR-v7 protein levels in both 22Rv1 (FIG. 11A) and VCaP-16 (FIG. 11B) cell lines.

FIG. 12 shows the preliminary mechanism of action is through AR-v7 and ARE perturbation.

FIG. 13 shows the EMSA mechanism of action of compound (2) (left panel) and compound (1) (right panel).

FIG. 14 shows the androgen receptor DNA binding domain. FIG. 14 is adapted from Shaffer et al. PNAS, 2004, 101; 14, 4758.

FIG. 15 shows the results of preliminary docking studies of compound (1) (left panel) with AR-DBD (right panel).

FIG. 16 shows the structure of compound (1) with AR-DBD.

FIGS. 17A to 17D show the structure of compound (1) with AR-DBD in the front (FIG. 17A), front undercarriage (FIG. 17B), and back views (FIGS. 17C and 17D).

FIG. 18 shows the results of preliminary docking studies of compound (2) with AR-DBD.

FIGS. 19A to 19D show the structure of compound (2) with AR-DBD in the front (FIG. 19A), front undercarriage (FIG. 19B), and back views (FIGS. 19C and 19D).

FIG. 20 shows the structure of compound (2) with AR-DBD.

FIG. 21 shows the androgen receptor DNA binding domain cloning procedure.

FIGS. 22A and 22B show GST-AR-DBD relative protein quantitation. The results with Coomassie staining are shown in FIG. 22A and the BSA linear regression is shown in FIG. 22B.

FIG. 23 shows the ARE oligo assessment.

FIG. 24 shows new oligo and protein function.

FIG. 25 shows GST-AR-DBD/(2)-003 competition.

FIG. 26 shows the (1) proposed initial SAR and chemical optimization.

FIG. 27 shows synthetic efforts towards compound (1).

FIG. 28 shows synthetic efforts towards compound (1).

FIG. 29 shows synthetic efforts towards compound (1).

FIG. 30 shows the chemical optimization of compound (2).

FIG. 31 shows representative structural combinations.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Androgen receptor antagonists are a class of drugs which prevent androgens like testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) from mediating their biological effects in the body. They act by blocking the androgen receptor (AR) and/or inhibiting or suppressing androgen production. AR antagonists, also called antiandrogens, are used to treat an assortment of androgen-dependent conditions. In males, antiandrogens are used in the treatment of prostate cancer, benign prostatic hyperplasia, androgenic alopecia (pattern hair loss), hypersexuality, paraphilias, and precocious puberty. In women, antiandrogens are used to treat acne, seborrhea, hidradenitis suppurativa, hirsutism, and hyperandrogenism, such as that which occurs in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).

Androgens such as testosterone and DHT are involved in the development and progression of prostate cancer. They act as growth factors in the prostate gland, stimulating cell division and tissue growth. Therapeutic modalities that reduce androgen signaling in the prostate gland, referred to collectively as androgen deprivation therapy, are able to significantly slow the course of prostate cancer and extend life in men with the disease. Currently marketed antiandrogens are effective in slowing the progression of prostate cancer, but they are not generally curative, and with time, the disease adapts and androgen deprivation therapy eventually becomes ineffective. The compounds described herein are designed to overcome this problem.

Compounds of the Invention

Provided by the present disclosure are compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (IA), (IB), (IC), (ID), (IE), (IF), (IF-a), (IF-b), (IF-c), (IF-d), (IF-e), (IF-a3), (IF-b3), (IF-c3), (IF-d3), (IF-e3), (IF-a4), (IF-b4), (IF-c4), (IF-d4), (IF-e3), (IF-e4), (IIA), (IIB), (IIC), (IID), (IIA-a), (IIA-b), (IIA-c), and (IIA-d), and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, isotopically labeled derivatives, and prodrugs thereof, collectively referred to herein as compounds of the invention.

Compounds of the invention may bind an androgen receptor, or a variant thereof, and/or may be modulators (e.g., activators, inhibitors, agonists or antagonists) of an androgen receptor, or a variant thereof. Exemplary amino acid sequences of androgen receptors and variants thereof are provided herein. As such, the compounds are useful in modulating transcription and in the treatment and/or prevention of a variety of diseases and conditions, for example, proliferative diseases such as cancer. Also provided are related pharmaceutical compositions, methods, and uses of the compounds described herein.

In one aspect, provided herein is a compound of Formula (I):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

A is an optionally substituted heterocyclyl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;

L and L₁, independently are absent, or are optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ heteroaliphatic;

Q is hydrogen, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —R^(a), —OH, —OR^(a), —OC(O)R^(a), —OC(O)OR^(a), —OC(O)N(R^(a))₂, —NH₂, —N(R^(a))₂, —NC(O)R^(a), —NC(O)OR^(a), or —NC(O)N(R^(a))₂;

each occurrence of R^(a), independently, is optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heteroaliphatic, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; R₁ is optionally substituted aliphatic, or optionally substituted heteroaliphatic, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; R₂ is hydrogen, optionally substituted aliphatic, or optionally substituted heteroaliphatic; X₁ and X₂, independently, are selected from hydrogen, halogen, —OH, or optionally substituted aliphatic, or X₁ and X₂ together form an oxo (═O) group; and wherein Q and L, Q and L1, Q and R₂ or Q and X₁ may combine to form a ring.

In an embodiment, Q and L are substituents capable of combining to form a ring (for example, by combining radicals generated by removing one or more hydrogen atoms from Q and L, respectively), and Q and L combine to form a ring as in Formula (IA):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Non-limiting examples of compounds having the structure of Formula (IA) are shown in FIG. 29. In certain embodiments, Q and L do not combine to form a ring.

In an embodiment, Q and L₁ combine to form a ring, as in Formula (IB):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Non-limiting examples of compounds having the structure of Formula (IB) are shown in FIG. 26. In another embodiment, Q and L₁ do not combine to form a ring.

In an embodiment, Q and R₂ combine to form a ring, as in the compound of Formula (IC):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Non-limiting examples of compounds having the structure of Formula (IC) are shown in FIG. 26. In another embodiment, Q and R₂ do not combine to form a ring.

In another embodiment, Q and X₁ combine to form a ring, as in the compound of Formula (ID):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Non-limiting examples of compounds having the structure of Formula (ID) are shown in FIG. 26. In another embodiment, Q and X₁ do not combine to form a ring.

In an embodiment, the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (IF):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

L is absent, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ heteroaliphatic;

each occurrence of R, independently, is halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —R^(a), —OH, —OR^(a), —OC(O)R^(a), —OC(O)OR^(a), —OC(O)N(R^(a))₂, —NH₂, —N(R^(a))₂, —NC(O)R^(a), —NC(O)OR^(a), or —NC(O)N(R^(a))₂;

each occurrence of R^(a), independently, is optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heteroaliphatic, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;

R₁ is optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;

R₂ is hydrogen, optionally substituted aliphatic, or optionally substituted heteroaliphatic;

Z₁ and Z₂ are independently absent, C₁₋₂ alkylene, or

provided that only one of Z₁ and Z₂ is

R₃ is optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heteroaliphatic, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; and

n is 0-3.

In an embodiment, the compound of Formula (I) is not N-(2-((1S,4S)-bicyclo[2.2.1]hept-5-en-2-yl)ethyl)-3-((1-(cyclopropanecarbonyl)piperidin-4-yl)oxy)benzamide, or a stereoisomer thereof. In a particular embodiment, the compound of Formula (I) is not compound (1).

Several embodiments of Formula (IF) are provided, including Formulae (IF-a), (IF-b), (IF-c), (IF-d), and (IF-e), and further including Formulae (IF-a3), (IF-a4), (IF-b3), (IF-b4), (IF-c3), (IF-c4), (IF-d3), (IF-d4), (IF-e3), and (IF-e4), as defined herein. In a particular embodiment, the compound of Formula (IF) has the structure of Formula (IF-a) or Formula (IF-b). In a more particular embodiment, the compound of Formula (IF) has a structure selected from Formulae (IF-a3), (IF-a4), (IF-b3), and (IF-b4).

In an embodiment, L is absent. In an embodiment, L is C₁₋₆ alkylene, for example, methylene, ethylene, or propylene.

In an embodiment R₁ is optionally substituted C₅₋₁₀ cycloaliphatic. In an embodiment R₁ is optionally substituted C₆₋₁₀ aryl. In an embodiment R₁ is optionally substituted C₆₋₁₀ heteroaryl. In a particular embodiment, R₁ is C₅₋₇ monocyclic carbocyclyl. In a particular embodiment, R₁ is C₅₋₇ monocyclic heterocyclyl. In a particular embodiment, R₁ is C₅₋₁₀ fused bicyclic carbocyclyl. In a particular embodiment, R₁ is C₅₋₁₀ fused bicyclic heterocyclyl. In a particular embodiment, R₁ is C₅₋₁₀ bridged bicyclic carbocyclyl. In a particular embodiment, R₁ is C₅₋₁₀ bridged bicyclic heterocyclyl. In a particular embodiment, R₁ is C₅₋₁₀ bridged tricyclic carbocyclyl. In a particular embodiment, R₁ is C₅₋₁₀ bridged tricyclic heterocyclyl.

In an embodiment R₁ is selected from the following:

In a particular embodiment, R₁ is selected from:

In a particular embodiment, R₁ is selected from:

In a particular embodiment, R₁ is selected from:

In a particular embodiment, R₁ is selected from:

In a particular embodiment, R₁ is selected from:

In a particular embodiment, R₁ is selected from:

In an embodiment, R₂ is hydrogen. In an embodiment, R₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, e.g., C₁₋₆ haloalkyl.

In an embodiment, R₃ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted C₂₋₆ alkenyl, optionally substituted C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl, optionally substituted C₃₋₆ heterocycloalkyl, optionally substituted C₆₋₁₀ aryl, or optionally substituted C₂₋₁₀ heteroaryl.

In an embodiment, R₃ is C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₂₋₆ alkenyl, C₁₋₆ haloalkyl, C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl, optionally substituted benzyl, optionally substituted phenyl, or optionally substituted pyridyl (for example, 2-pyridyl, 3-pyridyl, or 4-pyridyl).

In an embodiment, R₃ is selected from:

In a particular embodiment, R₃ is selected from:

In a particular embodiment, R₃ is selected from:

In a particular embodiment, R₃ is selected from:

In an embodiment, n is 0, 1, 2, or 3. In a particular embodiment, n is 1, 2, or 3. In a particular embodiment, n is 0. In a particular embodiment, n is 1.

Also provided are the following particular embodiments:

In Formula (IF-a3): R₁ is optionally substituted C₅₋₁₀ bridged bicyclic carbocyclyl; L is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₃ is C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and n is 0.

In Formula (IF-a3): R₁ is optionally substituted C₅₋₁₀ fused bicyclic heterocyclyl; L is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₃ is C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and n is 0.

In Formula (IF-a3): R₁ is optionally substituted C₅₋₁₀ bridged tricyclic carbocyclyl; L is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₃ is C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and n is 0.

In Formula (IF-a3): R₁ is optionally substituted C₅₋₇ monocyclic carbocyclyl; L is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₃ is C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and n is 0.

In Formula (IF-a3): R₁ is optionally substituted C₆₋₁₀ heteroaryl; L is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₃ is C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and n is 0.

In Formula (IF-a3): R₁ is optionally substituted C₆₋₁₀ aryl; L is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₃ is C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and n is 0.

In Formula (IF-a4): R₁ is optionally substituted C₅₋₁₀ bridged bicyclic carbocyclyl; L is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₃ is C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and n is 0.

In Formula (IF-a4): R₁ is optionally substituted C₅₋₁₀ fused bicyclic heterocyclyl; L is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₃ is C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and n is 0.

In Formula (IF-a4): R₁ is optionally substituted C₅₋₁₀ bridged tricyclic carbocyclyl; L is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₃ is C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and n is 0.

In Formula (IF-a4): R₁ is optionally substituted C₅₋₇ monocyclic carbocyclyl; L is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₃ is C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and n is 0.

In Formula (IF-a4): R₁ is optionally substituted C₆₋₁₀ heteroaryl; L is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₃ is C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and n is 0.

In Formula (IF-a4): R₁ is optionally substituted C₆₋₁₀ aryl; L is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₃ is C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and n is 0.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is selected from the compounds of Table 1, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.

TABLE 1 Compounds of Formula (I). Compound Number Structure I-3 

I-4 

I-5 

I-6 

I-7 

I-8 

I-9 

I-10

I-11

I-12

I-13

I-14

I-15

I-16

I-17

I-18

I-19

I-20

I-21

I-22

I-23

I-24

I-25

I-26

I-27

I-28

I-29

I-30

I-31

I-32

I-33

I-34

I-35

I-36

I-37

  (mixture of stereoisomers) I-38

  (mixture of stereoisomers) I-39

  (mixture of stereoisomers) I-40

  (mixture of stereoisomers)

In another aspect, provided herein is a compound of Formula (II):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

L₁ is absent, or is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ heteroaliphatic;

L₂ is absent, or is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ heteroaliphatic; X is —O—, —S— or —N(R)—;

R is hydrogen, or optionally substituted alkyl;

Q₁, Q₂, and Q₃, independently, are ═N— or ═C(R₁)—;

R₁ is hydrogen, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —R^(a), —OH, —OR^(a), —OC(O)R^(a), —OC(O)OR^(a), —OC(O)N(R^(a))₂, —NH₂, —N(R^(a))₂, —NC(O)R^(a), —NC(O)OR^(a), or —NC(O)N(R^(a))₂;

each occurrence of R^(a), independently, is optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heteroaliphatic, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;

R₂ is optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;

R₃ is optionally substituted alkyl or optionally substituted cycloalkyl;

R₄ is hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl; and

R₅ is optionally substituted aryl or optionally substituted heteroaryl.

In an embodiment Q₁ and Q₃ are and Q₂ is ═C(R₁)—, and the compound of Formula (II) has the structure of Formula (IIA):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In an embodiment X is —N(R)—, Q₁ and Q₃ are and Q₂ is ═C(H)—, and the compound of Formula (II) has the structure of Formula (IIB):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In an embodiment Q₁ and Q₃ are ═C(H)—, Q₂ is ═N—, and the compound of Formula (II) has the structure of Formula (IIC):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In an embodiment Q₁, Q₂, and Q₃ are ═C(H)—, and the compound of Formula (II) has the structure of Formula (IID):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Several embodiments of Formulae (IIA)-(IID) are provided. If present, R₁ is hydrogen, optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted amino, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl. In a particular embodiment, R₁ is hydrogen. In a particular embodiment, R₁ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ispoproyl, trifluoromethyl, acetyl, and the like). In a particular embodiment, R₁ is optionally substituted amino (e.g., methylamino, benzylamino, dimethylamino, and the like). In a particular embodiment, R₁ is optionally substituted phenyl (e.g., toluyl, 4-chlorophenyl, and the like). In a particular embodiment, R₁ is optionally substituted heterocyclyl (e.g., pyrollidinyl, piperidinyl, and the like). In a particular embodiment, R₁ is optionally substituted heteroaryl (e.g., imidazoyl, thien-2-yl, pyridyl, and the like).

In an embodiment, R₂ is optionally substituted C₅₋₁₀ cycloaliphatic, optionally substituted C₆₋₁₀ aryl or optionally substituted C₆₋₁₀ heteroaryl. In a particular embodiment, R₂ is C₅₋₇ monocyclic carbocyclyl. In a particular embodiment, R₂ is C₅₋₇ monocyclic heterocyclyl. In a particular embodiment, R₂ is C₅₋₁₀ fused bicyclic carbocyclyl. In a particular embodiment, R₂ is C₅₋₁₀ fused bicyclic heterocyclyl. In a particular embodiment, R₂ is C₅₋₁₀ bridged bicyclic carbocyclyl. In a particular embodiment, R₂ is C₅₋₁₀ bridged bicyclic heterocyclyl. In a particular embodiment, R₂ is C₅₋₁₀ bridged tricyclic carbocyclyl. In a particular embodiment, R₂ is C₅₋₁₀ bridged tricyclic heterocyclyl.

In an embodiment R₂ is selected from the following:

In a particular embodiment, R₂ is selected from:

In a particular embodiment, R₂ is selected from:

In a particular embodiment, R₂ is selected from:

In a particular embodiment, R₂ is selected from:

In a particular embodiment, R₂ is selected from:

In a particular embodiment, R₂ is selected from:

In an embodiment, L₁ is absent. In an embodiment, L₁ is C₁₋₆ alkylene, for example, methylene, ethylene, or propylene.

If present, in certain embodiments, X is —N(H)—, X is —N(R)—, X is —S—, or X is —O—.

In an embodiment, R₃ is optionally substituted alkyl. In an embodiment, R₃ is optionally substituted cycloalkyl. In a particular embodiment, R₃ is C₁₋₆ alkyl (e.g., methyl). In a particular embodiment, R₃ is C₁₋₆ haloalkyl (e.g., trifluoromethyl). In a particular embodiment, R₃ is C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl).

In an embodiment, R₄ is C₁₋₆ alkyl. In a particular embodiment, R₄ is methyl.

In an embodiment, R₅ is an optionally substituted monocyclic aryl (e.g., tolyl, chlorophenyl, and the like). In an embodiment, R₅ is an optionally substituted bicyclic aryl (e.g., naphthyl and the like). In an embodiment, R₅ is an optionally substituted monocyclic heteroaryl (e.g., pyridyl, pyrimidinyl, thienyl, and the like). In an embodiment, R₅ is an optionally substituted bicyclic heteroaryl (e.g., quinolinyl, indolyl, and the like).

In an embodiment, R₅ is selected from the following:

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) has a structure selected from the following:

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.

Also provided are the following particular embodiments:

In Formula (IIA): X is —S—; L₁ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; L₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R₁ is hydrogen; R₂ is optionally substituted C₅₋₁₀ bridged bicyclic carbocyclyl; R₃ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₄ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and R₅ is optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl.

In Formula (IIA): X is —S—; L₁ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; L₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R₁ is hydrogen; R₂ is optionally substituted C₅₋₁₀ fused bicyclic heterocyclyl; R₃ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₄ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and R₅ is optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl.

In Formula (IIA): X is —S—; L₁ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; L₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R₁ is hydrogen; R₂ is optionally substituted C₅₋₁₀ bridged tricyclic carbocyclyl; R₃ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₄ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and R₅ is optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl.

In Formula (IIA): X is —S—; L₁ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; L₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R₁ is hydrogen; R₂ is optionally substituted C₅₋₁₀ monocyclic carbocyclyl; R₃ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₄ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and R₅ is optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl.

In Formula (IIA): X is —S—; L₁ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; L₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R₁ is hydrogen; R₂ is optionally substituted C₆₋₁₀ heteroaryl; R₃ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₄ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and R₅ is optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl.

In Formula (IIA): X is —S—; L₁ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; L₂ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R₁ is hydrogen; R₂ is optionally substituted C₆₋₁₀ aryl; R₃ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₄ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and R₅ is optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is selected from the compounds of Table 2 and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.

TABLE 2 Compounds of Formula (II). Compound Number Structure II-3

  (mixture of stereoisomers) II-4

  (mixture of stereoisomers) II-5

  (mixture of stereoisomers) II-6

  (mixture of stereoisomers) II-7

  (mixture of stereoisomers)

Pharmaceutical Compositions, Kits, and Administration

The present disclosure provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising a compound as described herein, and optionally a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. In one aspect, provided herein is a pharmaceutical composition comprising a composition of the invention and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient.

In certain embodiments, the compound described herein is provided in an effective amount in the pharmaceutical composition. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is a therapeutically effective amount. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is a prophylactically effective amount. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is an amount effective for treating a proliferative disease (e.g., cancer, particularly prostate cancer, more particularly castration resistant prostate cancer) in a subject in need thereof. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is an amount effective for preventing a proliferative disease (e.g., cancer, particularly prostate cancer, more particularly castration resistant prostate cancer) in a subject in need thereof. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is an amount effective for reducing the risk of developing a disease (e.g., a proliferative disease such as castration resistant prostate cancer) in a subject in need thereof. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is an amount effective for inhibiting or antagonizing the activity (e.g., aberrant activity, such as increased activity) of a biological receptor (e.g., an androgen receptor or a variant thereof) in a subject or cell.

In certain embodiments, the subject is an animal. The animal may be of either sex and may be at any stage of development. In certain embodiments, the subject described herein is a human. In certain embodiments, the subject is a non-human animal. In certain embodiments, the subject is a mammal. In certain embodiments, the subject is a non-human mammal. In certain embodiments, the subject is a domesticated animal, such as a dog, cat, cow, pig, horse, sheep, or goat. In certain embodiments, the subject is a companion animal, such as a dog or cat. In certain embodiments, the subject is a livestock animal, such as a cow, pig, horse, sheep, or goat. In certain embodiments, the subject is a zoo animal. In another embodiment, the subject is a research animal, such as a rodent (e.g., mouse, rat), dog, pig, or non-human primate. In certain embodiments, the animal is a genetically engineered animal. In certain embodiments, the animal is a transgenic animal (e.g., transgenic mice and transgenic pigs).

In certain embodiments, the cell is present in vitro. In certain embodiments, the cell is present in vivo.

In certain embodiments, the effective amount is an amount effective for inhibiting the activity of a protein kinase by at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 98%.

Pharmaceutical compositions described herein can be prepared by any method known in the art of pharmacology. In general, such preparatory methods include bringing the compound described herein (i.e., the “active ingredient”) into association with a carrier or excipient, and/or one or more other accessory ingredients, and then, if necessary and/or desirable, shaping, and/or packaging the product into a desired single- or multi-dose unit.

Pharmaceutical compositions can be prepared, packaged, and/or sold in bulk, as a single unit dose, and/or as a plurality of single unit doses. A “unit dose” is a discrete amount of the pharmaceutical composition comprising a predetermined amount of the active ingredient. The amount of the active ingredient is generally equal to the dosage of the active ingredient which would be administered to a subject and/or a convenient fraction of such a dosage, such as one-half or one-third of such a dosage.

Relative amounts of the active ingredient, the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, and/or any additional ingredients in a pharmaceutical composition described herein will vary, depending upon the identity, size, and/or condition of the subject treated and further depending upon the route by which the composition is to be administered. The composition may comprise between 0.1% and 100% (w/w) active ingredient.

Pharmaceutically acceptable excipients used in the manufacture of provided pharmaceutical compositions include inert diluents, dispersing and/or granulating agents, surface active agents and/or emulsifiers, disintegrating agents, binding agents, preservatives, buffering agents, lubricating agents, and/or oils. Excipients such as cocoa butter and suppository waxes, coloring agents, coating agents, sweetening, flavoring, and perfuming agents may also be present in the composition.

Liquid dosage forms for oral and parenteral administration include pharmaceutically acceptable emulsions, microemulsions, solutions, suspensions, syrups and elixirs. In addition to the active ingredients, the liquid dosage forms may comprise inert diluents commonly used in the art such as, for example, water or other solvents, solubilizing agents and emulsifiers such as ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, ethyl carbonate, ethyl acetate, benzyl alcohol, benzyl benzoate, propylene glycol, 1,3-butylene glycol, dimethylformamide, oils (e.g., cottonseed, groundnut, corn, germ, olive, castor, and sesame oils), glycerol, tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol, polyethylene glycols and fatty acid esters of sorbitan, and mixtures thereof. Besides inert diluents, the oral compositions can include adjuvants such as wetting agents, emulsifying and suspending agents, sweetening, flavoring, and perfuming agents. In certain embodiments for parenteral administration, the conjugates described herein are mixed with solubilizing agents such as Cremophor®, alcohols, oils, modified oils, glycols, polysorbates, cyclodextrins, polymers, and mixtures thereof.

Injectable preparations, for example, sterile injectable aqueous or oleaginous suspensions can be formulated according to the known art using suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents. The sterile injectable preparation can be a sterile injectable solution, suspension, or emulsion in a nontoxic parenterally acceptable diluent or solvent, for example, as a solution in 1,3-butanediol. Among the acceptable vehicles and solvents that can be employed are water, Ringer's solution, U.S.P., and isotonic sodium chloride solution. In addition, sterile, fixed oils are conventionally employed as a solvent or suspending medium. For this purpose any bland fixed oil can be employed including synthetic mono- or di-glycerides. In addition, fatty acids such as oleic acid are used in the preparation of injectables.

The injectable formulations can be sterilized, for example, by filtration through a bacterial-retaining filter, or by incorporating sterilizing agents in the form of sterile solid compositions which can be dissolved or dispersed in sterile water or other sterile injectable medium prior to use.

In order to prolong the effect of a drug, it is often desirable to slow the absorption of the drug from subcutaneous or intramuscular injection. This can be accomplished by the use of a liquid suspension of crystalline or amorphous material with poor water solubility. The rate of absorption of the drug then depends upon its rate of dissolution, which, in turn, may depend upon crystal size and crystalline form. Alternatively, delayed absorption of a parenterally administered drug form may be accomplished by dissolving or suspending the drug in an oil vehicle.

Solid dosage forms for oral administration include capsules, tablets, pills, powders, and granules. In such solid dosage forms, the active ingredient is mixed with at least one inert, pharmaceutically acceptable excipient or carrier such as sodium citrate or dicalcium phosphate and/or (a) fillers or extenders such as starches, lactose, sucrose, glucose, mannitol, and silicic acid, (b) binders such as, for example, carboxymethylcellulose, alginates, gelatin, polyvinylpyrrolidinone, sucrose, and acacia, (c) humectants such as glycerol, (d) disintegrating agents such as agar, calcium carbonate, potato or tapioca starch, alginic acid, certain silicates, and sodium carbonate, (e) solution retarding agents such as paraffin, (f) absorption accelerators such as quaternary ammonium compounds, (g) wetting agents such as, for example, cetyl alcohol and glycerol monostearate, (h) absorbents such as kaolin and bentonite clay, and (i) lubricants such as talc, calcium stearate, magnesium stearate, solid polyethylene glycols, sodium lauryl sulfate, and mixtures thereof. In the case of capsules, tablets, and pills, the dosage form may include a buffering agent.

A pharmaceutical composition described herein can be prepared, packaged, and/or sold in a formulation for ophthalmic administration. Such formulations may, for example, be in the form of eye drops including, for example, a 0.1-1.0% (w/w) solution and/or suspension of the active ingredient in an aqueous or oily liquid carrier or excipient. Such drops may further comprise buffering agents, salts, and/or one or more other of the additional ingredients described herein. Other opthalmically-administrable formulations which are useful include those which comprise the active ingredient in microcrystalline form and/or in a liposomal preparation. Ear drops and/or eye drops are also contemplated as being within the scope of this disclosure.

Although the descriptions of pharmaceutical compositions provided herein are principally directed to pharmaceutical compositions which are suitable for administration to humans, it will be understood by the skilled artisan that such compositions are generally suitable for administration to animals of all sorts. Modification of pharmaceutical compositions suitable for administration to humans in order to render the compositions suitable for administration to various animals is well understood, and the ordinarily skilled veterinary pharmacologist can design and/or perform such modification with ordinary experimentation.

Compounds provided herein are typically formulated in dosage unit form for ease of administration and uniformity of dosage. It will be understood, however, that the total daily usage of the compositions described herein will be decided by a physician within the scope of sound medical judgment. The specific therapeutically effective dose level for any particular subject or organism will depend upon a variety of factors including the disease being treated and the severity of the disorder; the activity of the specific active ingredient employed; the specific composition employed; the age, body weight, general health, sex, and diet of the subject; the time of administration, route of administration, and rate of excretion of the specific active ingredient employed; the duration of the treatment; drugs used in combination or coincidental with the specific active ingredient employed; and like factors well known in the medical arts.

The compounds and compositions provided herein can be administered by any route, including enteral (e.g., oral), parenteral, intravenous, intramuscular, intra-arterial, intramedullary, intrathecal, subcutaneous, intraventricular, transdermal, interdermal, rectal, intravaginal, intraperitoneal, topical (as by powders, ointments, creams, and/or drops), mucosal, nasal, bucal, sublingual; by intratracheal instillation, bronchial instillation, and/or inhalation; and/or as an oral spray, nasal spray, and/or aerosol. Specifically contemplated routes are oral administration, intravenous administration (e.g., systemic intravenous injection), regional administration via blood and/or lymph supply, and/or direct administration to an affected site. In general, the most appropriate route of administration will depend upon a variety of factors including the nature of the agent (e.g., its stability in the environment of the gastrointestinal tract), and/or the condition of the subject (e.g., whether the subject is able to tolerate oral administration). In certain embodiments, the compound or pharmaceutical composition described herein is suitable for topical administration to the eye of a subject.

The exact amount of a compound required to achieve an effective amount will vary from subject to subject, depending, for example, on species, age, and general condition of a subject, severity of the side effects or disorder, identity of the particular compound, mode of administration, and the like. An effective amount may be included in a single dose (e.g., single oral dose) or multiple doses (e.g., multiple oral doses). In certain embodiments, when multiple doses are administered to a subject or applied to a tissue or cell, any two doses of the multiple doses include different or substantially the same amounts of a compound described herein. In certain embodiments, when multiple doses are administered to a subject or applied to a tissue or cell, the frequency of administering the multiple doses to the subject or applying the multiple doses to the tissue or cell is three doses a day, two doses a day, one dose a day, one dose every other day, one dose every third day, one dose every week, one dose every two weeks, one dose every three weeks, or one dose every four weeks. In certain embodiments, the frequency of administering the multiple doses to the subject or applying the multiple doses to the tissue or cell is one dose per day. In certain embodiments, the frequency of administering the multiple doses to the subject or applying the multiple doses to the tissue or cell is two doses per day. In certain embodiments, the frequency of administering the multiple doses to the subject or applying the multiple doses to the tissue or cell is three doses per day. In certain embodiments, when multiple doses are administered to a subject or applied to a tissue or cell, the duration between the first dose and last dose of the multiple doses is one day, two days, four days, one week, two weeks, three weeks, one month, two months, three months, four months, six months, nine months, one year, two years, three years, four years, five years, seven years, ten years, fifteen years, twenty years, or the lifetime of the subject, tissue, or cell. In certain embodiments, the duration between the first dose and last dose of the multiple doses is three months, six months, or one year. In certain embodiments, the duration between the first dose and last dose of the multiple doses is the lifetime of the subject, tissue, or cell. In certain embodiments, a dose (e.g., a single dose, or any dose of multiple doses) described herein includes independently between 0.1 μg and 1 μg, between 0.001 mg and 0.01 mg, between 0.01 mg and 0.1 mg, between 0.1 mg and 1 mg, between 1 mg and 3 mg, between 3 mg and 10 mg, between 10 mg and 30 mg, between 30 mg and 100 mg, between 100 mg and 300 mg, between 300 mg and 1,000 mg, or between 1 g and 10 g, inclusive, of a compound described herein. In certain embodiments, a dose described herein includes independently between 1 mg and 3 mg, inclusive, of a compound described herein. In certain embodiments, a dose described herein includes independently between 3 mg and 10 mg, inclusive, of a compound described herein. In certain embodiments, a dose described herein includes independently between 10 mg and 30 mg, inclusive, of a compound described herein. In certain embodiments, a dose described herein includes independently between 30 mg and 100 mg, inclusive, of a compound described herein.

Dose ranges as described herein provide guidance for the administration of provided pharmaceutical compositions to an adult. The amount to be administered to, for example, a child or an adolescent can be determined by a medical practitioner or person skilled in the art and can be lower or the same as that administered to an adult. In certain embodiments, a dose described herein is a dose to an adult human whose body weight is 70 kg.

A compound or composition, as described herein, can be administered in combination with one or more additional pharmaceutical agents (e.g., therapeutically and/or prophylactically active agents). The compounds or compositions can be administered in combination with additional pharmaceutical agents that improve their activity (e.g., activity (e.g., potency and/or efficacy) in treating a disease in a subject in need thereof, in preventing a disease in a subject in need thereof, in reducing the risk to develop a disease in a subject in need thereof, and/or in inhibiting the activity of a protein kinase in a subject or cell), improve bioavailability, improve safety, reduce drug resistance, reduce and/or modify metabolism, inhibit excretion, and/or modify distribution in a subject or cell. It will also be appreciated that the therapy employed may achieve a desired effect for the same disorder, and/or it may achieve different effects. In certain embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition described herein including a compound described herein and an additional pharmaceutical agent shows a synergistic effect that is absent in a pharmaceutical composition including one of the compound and the additional pharmaceutical agent, but not both.

The compound or composition can be administered concurrently with, prior to, or subsequent to one or more additional pharmaceutical agents, which are different from the compound or composition and may be useful as, e.g., combination therapies. Pharmaceutical agents include therapeutically active agents. Pharmaceutical agents also include prophylactically active agents. Pharmaceutical agents include small organic molecules such as drug compounds (e.g., compounds approved for human or veterinary use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as provided in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)), peptides, proteins, carbohydrates, monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, nucleoproteins, mucoproteins, lipoproteins, synthetic polypeptides or proteins, small molecules linked to proteins, glycoproteins, steroids, nucleic acids, DNAs, RNAs, nucleotides, nucleosides, oligonucleotides, antisense oligonucleotides, lipids, hormones, vitamins, and cells. In certain embodiments, the additional pharmaceutical agent is a pharmaceutical agent useful for treating and/or preventing a disease (e.g., proliferative disease, hematological disease, neurological disease, painful condition, psychiatric disorder, or metabolic disorder). Each additional pharmaceutical agent may be administered at a dose and/or on a time schedule determined for that pharmaceutical agent. The additional pharmaceutical agents may also be administered together with each other and/or with the compound or composition described herein in a single dose or administered separately in different doses. The particular combination to employ in a regimen will take into account compatibility of the compound described herein with the additional pharmaceutical agent(s) and/or the desired therapeutic and/or prophylactic effect to be achieved. In general, it is expected that the additional pharmaceutical agent(s) in combination be utilized at levels that do not exceed the levels at which they are utilized individually. In some embodiments, the levels utilized in combination will be lower than those utilized individually.

The additional pharmaceutical agents include, but are not limited to, anti-proliferative agents, anti-cancer agents, cytotoxic agents, anti-angiogenesis agents, anti-inflammatory agents, immunosuppressants, anti-bacterial agents, anti-viral agents, cardiovascular agents, cholesterol-lowering agents, anti-diabetic agents, anti-allergic agents, contraceptive agents, and pain-relieving agents. In certain embodiments, the additional pharmaceutical agent is an anti-proliferative agent. In certain embodiments, the additional pharmaceutical agent is an anti-cancer agent. In certain embodiments, the additional pharmaceutical agent is an anti-viral agent. In certain embodiments, the additional pharmaceutical agent is a binder or inhibitor of a protein kinase. In certain embodiments, the additional pharmaceutical agent is selected from the group consisting of epigenetic or transcriptional modulators (e.g., DNA methyltransferase inhibitors, histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDAC inhibitors), lysine methyltransferase inhibitors), antimitotic drugs (e.g., taxanes and vinca alkaloids), hormone receptor modulators (e.g., estrogen receptor modulators and androgen receptor modulators), cell signaling pathway inhibitors (e.g., tyrosine protein kinase inhibitors), modulators of protein stability (e.g., proteasome inhibitors), Hsp90 inhibitors, glucocorticoids, all-trans retinoic acids, and other agents that promote differentiation. In certain embodiments, the compounds described herein or pharmaceutical compositions can be administered in combination with an anti-cancer therapy including, but not limited to, surgery, radiation therapy, transplantation (e.g., stem cell transplantation, bone marrow transplantation), immunotherapy, and chemotherapy.

Also encompassed by the disclosure are kits (e.g., pharmaceutical packs). The kits provided may comprise a pharmaceutical composition or compound described herein and a container (e.g., a vial, ampule, bottle, syringe, and/or dispenser package, or other suitable container). In some embodiments, provided kits may optionally further include a second container comprising a pharmaceutical excipient for dilution or suspension of a pharmaceutical composition or compound described herein. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition or compound described herein provided in the first container and the second container are combined to form one unit dosage form.

Thus, in one aspect, provided are kits including a first container comprising a compound or pharmaceutical composition described herein. In certain embodiments, the kits are useful for treating a disease (e.g., proliferative disease, hematological disease, neurological disease, painful condition, psychiatric disorder, or metabolic disorder) in a subject in need thereof. In certain embodiments, the kits are useful for preventing a disease (e.g., proliferative disease, hematological disease, neurological disease, painful condition, psychiatric disorder, or metabolic disorder) in a subject in need thereof. In certain embodiments, the kits are useful for reducing the risk of developing a disease (e.g., proliferative disease, hematological disease, neurological disease, painful condition, psychiatric disorder, or metabolic disorder) in a subject in need thereof. In certain embodiments, the kits are useful for inhibiting the activity (e.g., aberrant activity, such as increased activity) of a protein kinase in a subject or cell.

In certain embodiments, a kit described herein further includes instructions for using the kit. A kit described herein may also include information as required by a regulatory agency such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In certain embodiments, the information included in the kits is prescribing information. In certain embodiments, the kits and instructions provide for treating a disease (e.g., proliferative disease, hematological disease, neurological disease, painful condition, psychiatric disorder, or metabolic disorder) in a subject in need thereof. In certain embodiments, the kits and instructions provide for preventing a disease (e.g., proliferative disease, hematological disease, neurological disease, painful condition, psychiatric disorder, or metabolic disorder) in a subject in need thereof. In certain embodiments, the kits and instructions provide for reducing the risk of developing a disease (e.g., proliferative disease, hematological disease, neurological disease, painful condition, psychiatric disorder, or metabolic disorder) in a subject in need thereof. In certain embodiments, the kits and instructions provide for inhibiting the activity (e.g., aberrant activity, such as increased activity) of a protein kinase in a subject or cell. A kit described herein may include one or more additional pharmaceutical agents described herein as a separate composition.

Methods of Treatment and Uses

Compounds of the invention are useful for the treatment of diseases and disorders associated with the androgen receptor. Such diseases include proliferative disorders. In a particular embodiment, the proliferative disorder is breast cancer. In another particular embodiment, the proliferative disorder is prostate cancer. For example, FIGS. 2A to 7C depict data showing that compounds of the invention stagnate cell proliferation in a variety of cell lines.

Provided herein is a method of modulating the expression of a gene, wherein the gene expression is mediated by an androgen receptor, comprising exposing a cell containing the gene and the androgen receptor to a compound of the invention. For example, FIGS. 10A to 10B show that compounds of the invention modulate AR-mediated gene expression.

Provided herein is a method of modulating the expression of a gene, wherein the gene expression is mediated by an androgen receptor, comprising contacting a cell containing the androgen receptor with a compound of the invention. See, for example, FIGS. 10A to 10B.

Also provided herein is a method of modulating the expression of a gene, wherein the gene expression is mediated by an androgen receptor, comprising exposing the androgen receptor to a compound of the invention. See, for example, FIGS. 10A to 10B.

Also provided herein is a method of modulating the expression of a gene, wherein the gene expression is mediated by an androgen receptor, comprising contacting the androgen receptor with a compound of the invention. See, for example, FIGS. 10A to 10B.

In an embodiment of the methods, the gene is selected from ACBD6, AKT1, ALG12, AP2A2, AQP12, BAG1, BAZ1B, BRCA1, CARKL, CDK1, CDK2, CDK9, CEP350, CHRM1, CLDN4, COX5B, CRELD2, DACH1, DDT, EFCAB6, FDZ9, FGF8, FOXO1, GAPDH, GNB2L1, GSK3B, GSTT2, HDAC1, HSP90AA1, HTATIP, JUN, KIAA1217, KIF1A, LHPP, LHX4, MAFG, MAGEA11, MAN2B2, MAP3K7IP1, MED1, MRFAP1, MUC6, MYST2, NCOA1, NCOA2, NCOA3, NCOA4, NCOA6, NCOR2, NONO, OAT, PA2G4, PAK6, PATZ1, PIAS2, PMEPA1, PRKCD, PRPF6, PSA, PTEN, PYCR1, QSCN6, RAD9A, RANBP9, RCHY1, RNF14, RNF4, SART3, SIRT1, SLC22A8, SCL22A6, SIRT7, SMAD3, SRC, SRY, STAT3, SVIL, SYNGR1, TGFB1I1, TMF1, TMPRSS2, TRIM68, TRPV1, TRPV3, UBE2I, UXT, WBSCR28, WBSCR27, and ZMIZ1. In an embodiment of the methods, the gene is AKT1.

Sequences of the androgen receptor gene products of interest herein often comprise or consist of sequences encoded by human androgen receptor genes, although sequences of non-human mammalian homologs may be used in certain embodiments. In general, the sequence of an androgen receptor protein or androgen receptor RNA often comprises or consists of a sequence of a human androgen receptor. In certain embodiments, the sequence of a gene product of an androgen receptor gene comprises or consists of a naturally occurring sequence. It will be appreciated that a genetic locus may have more than one sequence or allele in a population of individuals. In some embodiments a naturally occurring sequence is a standard sequence. Unless otherwise indicated, a sequence listed in the Reference Sequence (RefSeq) Database as a reference sequence for a protein that is referred to herein by a particular name, abbreviation, or symbol, is considered to be a “standard sequence.” If a sequence has been updated subsequent to the time of the present disclosure a version current at the time of the present disclosure or an updated version thereof may be used in certain embodiments. It will be appreciated that a genetic locus may have more than one sequence or allele in a population of individuals. In some embodiments a naturally occurring sequence differs from a standard sequence at one or more amino acid positions. A naturally occurring polynucleotide or polypeptide whose sequence differs from a standard sequence and that performs the normal function(s) of the polynucleotide or polypeptide may be referred to as having a “normal sequence”.

In an embodiment of the methods, the androgen receptor is mammalian, e.g., human or murine. In an embodiment of the method, the androgen acceptor is an androgen receptor splice variant (AR-v) as described herein. AR-vs include AR23, ARQ640X, AR-v1 (AR4), AR-v2, AR-v3 (AR1/2/2b/AR6), AR-v4 (AR1/2/3/2b, AR5), AR-v5, AR-v6, AR-v7 (AR3), AR-v8, AR-v9, AR-v10, AR-v11, AR-v12 (ARV567es), AR-v13, AR-v14, AR-v15, AR-v16, AR-v18, AR8, and AR45.

In another embodiment, the androgen receptor is a variant having exons 1, 2 and 3. In a particular embodiment, the AR-v is AR-v7. In another particular embodiment, the androgen receptor is full-length androgen receptor (AR-FL), e.g., human AR-FL.

In certain embodiments the sequence of an androgen receptor comprises the sequence of a naturally occurring androgen receptor protein or a biologically active variant thereof. A biologically active variant of an androgen receptor protein may contain one or more additions, substitutions, and/or deletions relative to the sequence of a naturally occurring androgen receptor protein. In some embodiments the sequence of an androgen receptor protein comprises a standard androgen receptor sequence. AR-FL is coded from eight exons and comprises four functional domains: an N-terminal domain (NTD), a DNA-binding domain (DBD), a hinge region, and a C-terminal ligand binding domain (LBD). On the AR gene locus, exon 1 encodes the NTD, exons 2 and 3 encode the DBD, exon 4 encodes the hinge region, and exons 5-8 encode the LBD. AR-FL is normally 920 amino acids in length and has the following standard amino acid sequence (GenBank and NCBI Reference Sequence Accession Number: NP_000035.2).

Sequences AR-FL MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGARKLKKLGNLKLQEEGEASSTTSPTEETTQKLTVSHIEGYECQP IFLNVLEAIEPGVVCAGHDNNQPDSFAALLSSLNELGERQLVHVVKWAKALPGFRNLHVDDQMAVIQYSWMGLMVFAMGWRSFTNVNSRMLYFAPD LVFNEYRMHKSRMYSQCVRMRHLSQEFGWLQITPQEFLCMKALLLFSIIPVDGLKNQKFFDELRMNYIKELDRIIACKRKNPTSCSRRFYQLTKLL DSVQPIARELHQFTFDLLIKSHMVSVDFPEMMAEIISVQVPKILSGKVKPIYFHTQ (SEQ ID NO: 1) AR23 MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEEIPEERDSGNSLSGLSTLVFVLPGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGARKLKKLGNLKLQEEGEASST TSPTEETTQKLTVSHIEGYECQPIFLNVLEAIEPGVVCAGHDNNQPDSFAALLSSLNELGERQLVHVVKWAKALPGFRNLHVDDQMAVIQYSWMGL MVFAMGWRSFTNVNSRMLYFAPDLVFNEYRMHKSRMYSQCVRMRHLSQEFGWLQITPQEFLCMKALLLFSIIPVDGLKNQKFFDELRMNYIKELDR IIACKRKNPTSCSRRFYQLTKLLDSVQPIARELHQFTFDLLIKSHMVSVDFPEMMAEIISVQVPKILSGKVKPIYFHTQ (SEQ ID NO: 2) ARQ640X MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGARKLKKLGNLKL (SEQ ID NO: 3) AR-v1 (AR4) MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGAAVVVSERILRVFGVSEWLP (SEQ ID NO: 4) AR-v2 MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGAAVVV SERILRVFGVSEWLP (SEQ ID NO: 5) AR-v3 (AR1/2/2b/AR6) MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGFFRMNKLKESSDTNPKPYCMAAPMGLTENNRNRKKSYRETNLKAVSWPLNHTGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRK CYEAGMTLGAAVVVSERILRVFGVSEWLP (SEQ ID NO: 6) AR-v4 (AR1/2/3/2b AR5) MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGGFFRMNKLKESSDTNPKPYCMAAPMGLTENNRNRKKSYRETNLK AVSWPLNHTGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGAAVVVSERILRVFGVSEWLP (SEQ ID NO: 7) AR-v5 MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGD (SEQ ID NO: 8) AR-v6 MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGAGSRVS (SEQ ID NO: 9) AR-v7 (AR3) MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGEKFRVGNCKHLKMTRP (SEQ ID NO: 10) AR-v8 MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGGFDNLCELSS (SEQ ID NO: 11) AR-v9 MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGDNLPEQAAFWRHLHIFWDHVVKK (SEQ ID NO: 12) AR-v10 MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTPSSGTNSVFLPHRDVVRTGCRSNSGYHSCSCEYHDYCFL (SEQ ID NO: 13) AR-v11 MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGGKILFFLFLLLPLSPFSLIF (SEQ ID NO: 14) AR-v12 (ARV567es) MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGARKLKKLGNLKLQEEGEASSTTSPTEETTQKLTVSHIEGYECQP IFLNVLEAIEPGVVCAGHDNNQPDSFAALLSSLNELGERQLVHVVKWAKALPDCERAASVHF (SEQ ID NO: 15) AR-v13 MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGARKLKKLGNLKLQEEGEASSTTSPTEETTQKLTVSHIEGYECQP IFLNVLEAIEPGVVCAGHDNNQPDSFAALLSSLNELGERQLVHVVKWAKALPGFRNLHVDDQMAVIQYSWMGLMVFAMGWRSFTNVNSRMLYFAPD LVFNEYRMHKSRMYSQCVRMRHLSQEFGWLQITPQEFLCMKALLLFSINHT (SEQ ID NO: 16) AR-v14 MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGARKLKKLGNLKLQEEGEASSTTSPTEETTQKLTVSHIEGYECQP IFLNVLEAIEPGVVCAGHDNNQPDSFAALLSSLNELGERQLVHVVKWAKALPGFRNLHVDDQMAVIQYSWMGLMVFAMGWRSFTNVNSRMLYFAPD LVFNEYRMHKSRMYSQCVRMRHLSQEFGWLQITPQEFLCMKALLLFSIIPVDGLKNQKFFDELRMNYIKELDRIIACKRKNPTSCSRRFYQLTKLL DSVQPITPDAMYL (SEQ ID NO: 17) AR-v15 MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGARKLKKLGNLKLQEEGEASSTTSPTEETTQKLTVSHIEGYECQP IFLNVLEAIEPGVVCAGHDNNQPDSFAALLSSLNELGERQLVHVVKWAKALPGFRNLHVDDQMAVIQYSWMGLMVFAMGWRSFTNVNSRMLYFAPD LVFNEYRMHKSRMYSQCVRMRHLSQEFGWLQITPQEFLCMKALLLFSISPVKEQRDKKSRGHDTLYFTSSRQMNVESIKTQWN (SEQ ID NO: 18) AR-v16 MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGARKLKKLGNLKLQEEGEASSTTSPTEETTQKLTVSHIEGYECQP IFLNVLEAIEPGVVCAGHDNNQPDSFAALLSSLNELGERQLVHVVKWAKALPGFRNLHVDDQMAVIQYSWMGLMVFAMGWRSFTNVNSRMLYFAPD LVFNEYRMHKSRMYSQCVRMRHLSQEFGWLQITPQEFLCMKALLLFSIIPVDGLKNQKFFDELRMNYIKELDRIIACKRKNPTSCSRRFYQLTKLL DSVQPIARELHQFTFDLLIKSHMITPDAMYL (SEQ ID NO: 19) AR-v18 MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALT CGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLGARKLKKLGNLKLQEEGEASSTTSPTEETTQKLTVSHIEGYECQP IFLNVLEAIEPGVVCAGHDNNQPDSFAALLSSLNELGERQLVHVVKWAKALPGFRNLHVDDQMAVIQYSWMGLMVFAMGWRSFTNVNSRMLYFAPD LVFNEYRMHKSRMYSQCVRMRHLSQEFGWLQITPQEFLCMKALLLFSISSRSHLMPCTCERGCSFVLEALSEQTRHLD (SEQ ID NO: 20) AR8 MEVQLGLGRVYPRPPSKTYRGAFQNLFQSVREVIQNPGPRHPEAASAAPPGASLLLLQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQETSPRQQQQQQGEDGS PQAHRRGPTGYLVLDEEQQPSQPQSALECHPERGCVPEPGAAVAASKGLPQQLPAPPDEDDSAAPSTLSLLGPTFPGLSSCSADLKDILSEASTMQ LLQQQQQEAVSEGSSSGRAREASGAPTSSKDNYLGGTSTISDNAKELCKAVSVSMGLGVEALEHLSPGEQLRGDCMYAPLLGVPPAVRPTPCAPLA ECKGSLLDDSAGKSTEDTAEYSPFKGGYTKGLEGESLGCSGSAAAGSSGTLELPSTLSLYKSGALDEAAAYQSRDYYNFPLALAGPPPPPPPPHPH ARIKLENPLDYGSAWAAAAAQCRYGDLASLHGAGAAGPGSGSPSAAASSSWHTLFTAEEGQLYGPCGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGEAGAVAP YGYTRPPQGLAGQESDFTAPDVWYPGGMVSRVPYPSPTCVKSEMGPWMDSYSGPYGDMRNTRRKRLWKLIIRSINSCICSPRETEVPVRQQK (SEQ ID NO: 21) AR45 MILWLHSLETARDHVLPIDYYFPPQKTCLICGDEASGCHYGALTCGSCKVFFKRAAEGKQKYLCASRNDCTIDKFRRKNCPSCRLRKCYEAGMTLG ARKLKKLGNLKLQEEGEASSTTSPTEETTQKLTVSHIEGYECQPIFLNVLEAIEPGVVCAGHDNNQPDSFAALLSSLNELGERQLVHVVKWAKALP GFRNLHVDDQMAVIQYSWMGLMVFAMGWRSFTNVNSRMLYFAPDLVFNEYRMHKSRMYSQCVRMRHLSQEFGWLQITPQEFLCMKALLLFSIIPVD GLKNQKFFDELRMNYIKELDRIIACKRKNPTSCSRRFYQLTKLLDSVQPIARELHQFTFDLLIKSHMVSVDFPEMMAEIISVQVPKILSGKVKPIY FHTQ (SEQ ID NO: 22)

In another aspect, provided herein is a method of modulating androgen receptor function comprising exposing the androgen receptor to a compound of the invention. In certain embodiments, the androgen receptor activity is inhibited or antagonized.

In another aspect, provided herein is a method of modulating androgen receptor function comprising contacting the androgen receptor with a compound of the invention. In an embodiment, the function of the androgen receptor is inhibited. In an embodiment, the function of the androgen receptor is antagonized.

In another aspect, provided herein is a method of treating a disorder in a subject in need of such treatment, wherein the disorder is associated with androgen receptor deregulation or dysregulation, comprising administering to the subject a compound of the invention, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof. In an embodiment, the disorder is cancer. In another embodiment, the disorder is breast cancer. In another embodiment, the disorder is prostate cancer. In a particular embodiment, the prostate cancer is castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). In a particular embodiment, the subject is male. In another particular embodiment, the subject is female.

In an embodiment, the method further comprises administering an additional therapeutic agent. In an embodiment, the additional therapeutic agent is administered simultaneously. In an embodiment, the additional therapeutic agent is administered sequentially, e.g., prior to administration of a compound of the invention, or after administration of a compound of the invention.

In an embodiment, the second therapeutic agent is a chemotherapeutic agent.

In certain embodiments of the foregoing methods, the compound of the invention is of Formula (I). In an embodiment, the compound of the invention is selected from Formulae (IA)-(IF). In an embodiment, the compound of the invention is of Formula (IF). In an embodiment, the compound of the invention is selected from Formulae (IF-a), (IF-b), (IF-c), (IF-d), (IF-e) and and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, isotopically labeled derivatives, and prodrugs thereof.

In an embodiment, the compound of the invention is selected from Formulae (IF-a3), (IF-b3), (IF-c3), (IF-d3), (IF-e3), (IF-a4), (IF-b4), (IF-c4), (IF-d4), (IF-e3), (IF-e4), and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, isotopically labeled derivatives, and prodrugs thereof.

In other embodiments of the foregoing methods, the compound of the invention is of Formula (II). In an embodiment, the compound of the invention is selected from Formulae (IIA), (IIB), (IIC), (IID), and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, isotopically labeled derivatives, and prodrugs thereof. In an embodiment, the compound of the invention is selected from Formulae (IIA-a), (IIA-b), (IIA-c), (IIA-d), and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, isotopically labeled derivatives, and prodrugs thereof.

In another aspect, provided herein is the use of a compound of the invention for modulating the expression of a gene, wherein the gene expression is mediated by an androgen receptor.

In another aspect, provided herein is the use of a compound of the invention for modulating androgen receptor function.

In another aspect, provided herein is the use of a compound of the invention for treating a disorder in a subject, wherein the disorder is associated with androgen receptor deregulation or dysregulation. In an embodiment, the disorder is cancer. In another embodiment, the disorder is prostate cancer. In a particular embodiment, the prostate cancer is castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC).

In certain embodiments of the foregoing uses, the compound of the invention is used in combination with an additional therapeutic agent, e.g., a chemotherapeutic agent.

Identification of Androgen Receptor Modulators

Compounds of the invention can be evaluated by secondary binding assays (e.g., surface plasmon resonance (SPR), thermal shift, and calorimetry), functional assays, or phenotypic assays (e.g., qPCR). Secondary binding assays may be used to determine whether or not the compound interacts directly with the target protein of interest (e.g., binds to the target protein) or to another protein in a complex (e.g., a member other than the target protein of interest in a multimeric complex comprising the target protein of interest), or to measure the binding affinities.

“Phenotypic assays” or “phenotypic screens” (used interchangeably herein) are used to identify or confirm that a compound (e.g., small molecule, peptide, RNAi, etc.) alters the phenotype of a cell or organism. A phenotype is any observable characteristic or trait (e.g., morphology, development, biochemical properties, physiological properties, etc.) or the composite thereof of an organism. An organism's phenotype results from the expression of its genetic code, i.e., its genotype. An organism's phenotype may also be influenced by environmental factors.

The term “qPCR” refers to a quantitative polymerase chain reaction or a real-time polymerase chain reaction. qPCR techniques for amplifying and detecting changes in concentration of a specific DNA or RNA sequence (e.g., amplicon) are well known in the art. A qPCR assay is used quantitatively or semi-quantitatively (e.g., above or below a certain amount of DNA molecules) to measure gene expression in a cell, e.g., an LNCaP cell. LNCaP cells are androgen-sensitive human prostate adenocarcinoma cells. The qPCR assay can be used to quantitate DNA expression levels in a cell, often with the use of fluorescent DNA-binding dyes or special probes that comprise a fluorophore attached to one end and a quencher molecule attached to the opposite end. Normally, the fluorophore is covalently attached to the 5′-end of the oligonucleotide probe and the quencher is attached to the 3′-end of the oligonucleotide probe.

The oligonucleotide probe comprises a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to the gene of interest (e.g., gene whose expression level is to be measured) that can hybridize (e.g., associate) to the DNA sequence comprising the gene of interest.

One example of a probe that is routinely used in the art is the TaqMan™ probe. The TaqMan™ probe has 5′->3′ exonuclease activity and a donor fluorophore and quencher attached to the 5′-end and 3′-end, respectively. Probes of this type are routinely used in the art. A TaqMan™ probe can be used to measure the expression level of a gene of interest, e.g., the expression level of prostate specific antigen (PSA). The PSA expression level may be used as a readout for the activity level of an androgen receptor or fragment thereof.

Another representative phenotypic assay is RT-PCR. The term “RT-PCR” refers to reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. RT-PCR may be used to qualitatively detect gene expression through creation of complementary DNA (cDNA) transcripts from mRNA. RT-PCR is used to clone expressed genes by reverse transcribing (e.g., transcribing RNA to DNA) the RNA of interest into its DNA complement through the use of the reverse transcriptase enzyme. The cDNA is then amplified by traditional PCR techniques, which are well known in the art.

Another representative phenotypic assay is quantitative RT-PCR. The term “quantitative RT-PCR” or “qRT-PCR” refers to a combination of the qPCR and RT-PCR techniques.

Compounds of the invention may also be identified via a reporter assay. Reporter assays are commonly used to study signaling pathways, gene expression and regulation at the transcriptional level, and the structure of regulatory elements. In general, a reporter assay comprises a regulatory element of interest (e.g. promoter DNA) along with a reporter gene (e.g., gene encoding a reporter protein) cloned into a vector and transfected into cells. In certain embodiments, a reporter is a protein. In certain embodiments, a reporter is a protein with an easily measureable activity. “Easily measureable activity” (or simply “activity”) can refer to any activity that can be measured through methods known in the art, such as fluorescence, enzymatic activities that generate fluorescent or luminescent products, or indirectly with antibodies. The activity of the regulatory element can be directly modulated by experimental conditions (e.g., introduction of a modulator into the cellular environment). Activity is directly correlated to the concentration of reporter produced from the transcription of the reporter gene, i.e., transcription of the promoter leads to production of the reporter, such that strong promoters produce more reporter and weak promoters produce less reporter. In certain embodiments, the reporter protein is luciferase. Luciferase is a generic term for a class of oxidative enzymes that produce bioluminescence, for example firefly luciferase, Renilla luciferase, NanoLuc luciferase, bacterial luciferase, among others. In certain embodiments, the regulatory element is a MMTV promoter.

In certain embodiments, the MMTV promoter and luciferase are encoded by (e.g., the DNA sequences are contained within) the same vector and transfected into cells. Design of vectors and transfection of vectors into cells are methods well known in the art. See, e.g., Sambrook, Russell, and Sambrook, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 3^(rd) ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, 2001.

A “dual-reporter assay” is conceptually similar to the single reporter assay described above, and can correct for experimental variation (e.g., cell number, transfection efficiency, etc.). In the case of a dual-reporter assay, cells are transfected with two plasmids, the first plasmid comprising the regulatory gene of interest and a first reporter, and the second plasmid comprising a constitutive promoter and a second reporter, wherein the second reporter and the first reporter have biologically distinct activities. The ratio of the first reporter activity (e.g., controlled by the regulatory gene of interest) relative to the second reporter activity (e.g., controlled by the constitutive promoter) corrects for experimental variation. For example, a dual-luciferase assay employs two luciferase reporter proteins that each have distinct bioluminescence signatures that can be easily distinguished and measured. A compound may be submitted to a screen comprising a dual-luciferase assay, the dual-luciferase assay further comprising (i) a first vector comprising a first promoter and a first reporter and (ii) a second vector comprising a second promoter and a second reporter. In one embodiment, the first vector comprises a first promoter and a first reporter, wherein the first promoter is the MMTV promoter and the first reporter is firefly luciferase, and the second vector comprises a second promoter and a second reporter, wherein the second promoter is the CMV promoter and the second reporter is Renilla luciferase.

Examples

In order that the invention described herein may be more fully understood, the following examples are set forth. The examples described in this application are offered to illustrate the methods, compositions, and systems provided herein and are not to be construed in any way as limiting their scope.

Instrumentation: HRMS data was generated using a Bruker Daltonics APEXIV 4.7 Tesla Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass Spectrometer (FT-ICR-MS). ¹H NMR data was generated using a VARIAN Inova-500 NMR Spectrometer with an Oxford Instruments Ltd. superconducting actively-shielded magnet, quad broadband RF (4 with Wave Form Generation). Software: VNMR 6.1c, or using a Bruker AVANCE III-400 NMR Spectrometer with a SpectroSpin superconducting magnet. Software: TopSpin 3.1.

In the assays, probes for KLK3 (PSA gene) and GAPDH (cell count control) were used with the SingleShot™ Probes Kit for Cell Lysis and RT-qPCR from BioRad.

General Synthesis Procedures Example 1. General Synthesis of Compounds of Formula (I)

3-Acetoxybenzoic acid was dissolved in DCM (0.4 M) and cooled to 0° C. in a dry and argon flushed reaction flask. Catalytic DMF (2 drops) was added to the mixture followed by dropwise addition of oxalyl chloride (3.0 equiv.). After consumption of the starting material as determined by TLC, the reaction was concentrated under reduced pressure. Residual water was azeotroped 3 times by the addition of toluene and subsequent evaporation. The intermediate acid chloride was then dried on the high-vac for 1 hour. The intermediate acid chloride was flushed with argon, dissolved in DCM (0.2 M), and cooled to 0° C. After the addition of TEA (4.0 equiv.), the respective amine (2.0 equiv.) was diluted in either THF or DCM (2.0 M) and added slowly to the suspended acid chloride. The reaction was slowly warmed to room temperature and allowed to react until TLC indicated the reaction complete. Aqueous HCl (1.0 M) was added and the mixture was stirred for 1 h. After extraction with DCM the combined organic layers were subsequently treated with saturated aqueous NaHCO₃, washed with brine, and dried over MgSO₄. The resultant solution was concentrated and purified via silica gel column chromatography (EtOAc:Hex) to give the desired acetoxy benzamide (37-59% yield).

To a solution of acetoxybenzamide (1.0 equiv.) in THF (0.1 M) was added aqueous lithium hydroxide (13.0 equiv., 4.6 N) at room temperature. After 2 hours, the reaction was deemed complete by TLC. The solution was neutralized with HCl (1.0 M) to an approximate pH of 6 and subsequently concentrated under reduced pressure to remove THF. The resultant aqueous solution was extracted 3 times with DCM, whereupon the combined organic layers were washed with brine and dried over anhydrous Na₂SO₄. After concentration, the material was purified via silica gel column chromatography (EtOAc:Hex) to give the desired product (95% yield).

In a dry and argon flushed 20 dram vial the starting hydroxybenzamide (1.0 equiv.) was dissolved in DMF (0.07 M). The tosylated hydroxy-acylpiperidine (1.5 equiv.) and K₂CO₃ (2.0 equiv.) were subsequently added. The reaction vessel was sealed and the mixture heated to 80° C. and stirred for 12 h after which the conversion of starting materials was incomplete. Regardless, the solution was cooled to room temperature and poured into H₂O. The solution was extracted with EtOAc (3 times), washed with brine, and dried over anhydrous MgSO₄. After concentration, the material was purified via silica gel column chromatography (EtOAc:Hex) to give the desired product (26-63% yield).

4-Hydroxypiperidine was placed into a dried and argon flushed reaction flask. DCM (1.0 M) and TEA (1.1 equiv.) were added to the solution at room temperature. The mixture was then cooled to −60° C. before the acyl chloride was added dropwise. Once all the components were added, the reaction was slowly warmed to room temperature. After 1.5 hours, the reaction was deemed complete by TLC and the reaction was worked up by adding aqueous HCl (1.0 M). After extraction with DCM the combined organic layers were treated with saturated aqueous NaHCO₃, washed with brine, and dried over MgSO₄. The resultant solution was concentrated and purified via silica gel column chromatography (EtOAc:Hex) to give the desired 4-hydroxy acylpiperidine (58-92% yield).

In a dried and argon flushed reaction vessel, 4-hydroxy acylpiperidine (1.0 equiv.) was dissolved in DCM (0.4 M). TEA (1.5 equiv.), DMAP (0.05 equiv.), and tosyl chloride (1.2 equiv.) were then added sequentially. The reaction was left at room temperature for 12 hours whereupon TLC revealed consumption of starting material. Saturated aqueous NaHCO₃ was added and the reaction was extracted 3 times with DCM. The organic layer was neutralized with saturated NaHCO₃, washed with brine, and dried over MgSO₄. The resultant solution was concentrated and purified via silica gel column chromatography (EtOAc:Hex) to give the desired 4-hydroxy acylpiperidine (74-99% yield).

In a dry and argon flushed 20 dram vial the starting methyl hydroxybenzoate (1.0 equiv.) was dissolved in DMF (0.07 M). The tosylated hydroxy-acylpiperidine (1.5 equiv.) and K₂CO₃ (2.0 equiv.) were subsequently added. The reaction vessel was sealed and the mixture heated to 80° C. and stirred for 12 h after which the conversion of starting materials was incomplete. Regardless, the solution was cooled to room temperature and poured into H₂O. The solution was extracted with EtOAc (3 times), washed with brine, and dried over anhydrous MgSO₄. After concentration, the material was purified via column chromatography (EtOAc:Hx) to give the desired product (55-65% yield).

To a solution of starting methyl ester (1.0 equiv.) in THF (0.1 M) was added aqueous lithium hydroxide (13.0 equiv., 4.6 N). The mixture was heated to 65° C. and stirred for 2 hours. After consumption of starting material as determined by TLC, the solution was concentrated under reduced pressure to remove THF and subsequently acidified with concentrated HCl until the title carboxylic acid precipitated from solution. The precipitate was washed with cold H₂O, and dried on the high-vac overnight (70-93% yield).

In a dried and argon flushed reaction flask, the respective carboxylic acid was dissolved in DMF (0.2 M). Subsequently, the respective amine (1.5 equiv.) and DIPEA (5.0 equiv.) were added. The mixture was allowed to stir for 5 min whereupon HATU (2.0 equiv.) was added. The combined mixture was stirred at room temperature for 16 hours or until indicated complete by TLC. Upon consumption of starting material, the reaction was diluted with H₂O and extracted with EtOAc. The combined organic layers were washed with brine and dried over anhydrous MgSO₄ before being concentrated and purified via silica gel column chromatography (EtOAc:Hex) to afford the desired benzamide (30-84% yield).

Example 2. General Synthesis of Compounds of Formula (II)

In a sealed tube previously dried and flushed with argon, methyl 4-chloro-5-methylthieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine-6-carboxylate (1.0 equiv.) was dissolved in 1,4-dioxane (0.5 M). The respective amine (1.5 equiv.) and para-toluenesulfonic acid (0.05 equiv.) were subsequently added. The vessel was sealed and the reaction mixture heated to 120° C. and stirred for 12 hours. Upon completion as indicated by TLC, the solution was concentrated under reduced pressure and the residuals were reconstituted in EtOAc and aqueous HCl (1.0 M). The biphasic mixture was separated and the aqueous layer was further extracted with EtOAc. The combined organic layers were washed with brine, and dried over MgSO₄. Concentration and purification via silica gel column chromatography (EtOAc:Hex) gave the desired product (18-44% yield).

To a solution of methyl 4-(amine-substituted)-5-methylthieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine-6-carboxylate (1.0 equiv.) in THF (0.1 M) was added lithium hydroxide solution (13.0 equiv., 4.6 N). The mixture was heated to 65° C. for 2 hours. After consumption of starting material as determined by TLC, the solution was concentrated under reduced pressure to remove THF and was subsequently acidified with concentrated HCl until the title carboxylic acid precipitated from the solution. The precipitate was filtered, washed with cold H₂O, and dried on high-vac overnight (20-70% yield).

In a reaction flask previously dried and flushed with argon, the respective carboxylic acid was dissolved in DMF (0.2 M) before the subsequent addition of N-methyl-1-(5-quinolinyl)methanamine hydrochloride (1.5 equiv.) and DIPEA (5.0 equiv.). The mixture was allowed to stir for 5 min whereupon HATU (2.0 equiv.) was added. The combined mixture was stirred at room temperature for 6 hours and was deemed complete by TLC. The reaction mixture was poured directly into water, extracted with EtOAc, washed with brine, and dried over anhydrous MgSO₄. The solution was then concentrated and purified via silica gel column chromatography to afford the desired quinolinylmethanamide (38-87% yield).

In a reaction flask previously dried and flushed with argon, the respective carboxylic acid was dissolved in DMF (0.2 M) before the subsequent addition of 2-naphthylamine (1.5 equiv.) and DIPEA (5.0 equiv.). The mixture was allowed to stir for 5 min whereupon HATU (2.0 equiv.) was added. The combined mixture was stirred at room temperature for 6 hours or until indicated complete by TLC. Upon consumption of starting material, the reaction was diluted with H2O and extracted with EtOAc. The combined organic layers were washed with brine and dried over anhydrous MgSO₄. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure and the crude was purified via silica gel column chromatography to afford the desired 2-naphthylamide (36% yield).

Example 3. Experimental Data

All compounds were evaluated in a reporter gene assay (22Rv1 cell line lentiviral transduced with CMV-firefly luciferase) to monitor transcriptional effects and two cell viability assays (Cell-titer blue; PC3 cell line, an AR insensitive cell line, and LNCaP cell line, an AR sensitive cell line). The compounds were also monitored for aggregation.

TABLE 3 Compound Data. Reporter PC3 CTB LNCaP CTB Solubility Compound IC50 (μM) IC50 (μM) IC50 (μM) (mM) HRMS I-3 ~24.64 3558 16.67 25 437.2786 [M + H] I-4 ~25.2 33449 24.32 25 451.2958 [M + H]; 901.5752 [2M + H] I-5 ~25.22 0 24.64 25 423.2629 [M + H] I-6 ~24.95 2.616E+14 8.199 25 445.2476 [M + H]; 467.2283 [M + Na] I-7 ~25.85 52.38 25 459.2657 [M + H] I-8 21.92 70.51 25 437.2055 [M + H]; 873.4037 [2M + H] I-9 354.9 25 446.2447 [M + H] I-10  2.928E+40 25 409.2468 [M + H]; 431.2293 [M + Na] I-11 28.26 6.73418E+13 25 395.2334 [M + H] I-12 I-13 172 25 437.2807 [M + H] I-14  3.418E+18 25 451.2958 [M + H] I-15 I-16 I-17 5.208 18.4 25 423.1901 [M + H] I-18 ~24.35 41.22 25 409.2491 [M + H] I-19 25 300.1594 [M + H]; 599.3134 [2M + H] I-20 25 258.1490 [M + H] I-21 341.5 25 467.3268 [M + H] I-22 3578 6.25 507.2396 [M + H]; 1013.4673 [2M + H] I-23 ~25.49 1020 25 409.2496 [M + H] I-24 20.43 1653 12.5 444.2293 [M + H] I-25 387.8 25 409.2467 [M + H]; 431.2281 [M + Na] I-26 340.9 222 25 407.2336 [M + H] I-27 49.92 28.52 12.5 415.2022 [M + H] I-28 176 698.5 25 399.1482 [M + H] I-29 25.13 25 407.2337 [M + H]; 429.2159 [M + Na] I-30 135.8 25 365.1876 [M + H]; 387.1693 [M + Na] I-31 166 62.65 25 379.2022 [M + H]; 401.1838 [M + Na] I-32 100.8 79.17 25 399.2652 [M + H]; 421.2466 [M + Na] I-33 423.2634 [M + H]; 445.2446 [M + Na] I-34 ~27.86 55.78 28.84 12.5 425.2801 [M + H] I-35 31.47 26.52 25 423.2656 [M + H] I-36 80.48 25 439.2599 [M + H] I-37 1151 286882 25 I-38 1889  1.338E+18 12.5 I-39 93.88 396.8 25 437.2033 [M + H] I-40 90.27 120.3 25 446.2441 [M + H] II-3 3207 492.9 25 II-4 9.631 10.72 25 474.2305 [M + H]; 947.4574 [2M + H] II-5 2.362 781.9 8.09 25 484.2152 [M + H]; 967.4290 [2M + H] II-6 8.287 1680 14.08 25 484.2145 [M + H]; 967.4367 [2M + H] II-7 68.23 25 441.1743 [M + H]

EQUIVALENTS AND SCOPE

In the claims articles such as “a,” “an,” and “the” may mean one or more than one unless indicated to the contrary or otherwise evident from the context. Claims or descriptions that include “or” between one or more members of a group are considered satisfied if one, more than one, or all of the group members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process unless indicated to the contrary or otherwise evident from the context. The invention includes embodiments in which exactly one member of the group is present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process. The invention includes embodiments in which more than one, or all of the group members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process.

Furthermore, the invention encompasses all variations, combinations, and permutations in which one or more limitations, elements, clauses, and descriptive terms from one or more of the listed claims is introduced into another claim. For example, any claim that is dependent on another claim can be modified to include one or more limitations found in any other claim that is dependent on the same base claim. Where elements are presented as lists, e.g., in Markush group format, each subgroup of the elements is also disclosed, and any element(s) can be removed from the group. It should it be understood that, in general, where the invention, or aspects of the invention, is/are referred to as comprising particular elements and/or features, certain embodiments of the invention or aspects of the invention consist, or consist essentially of, such elements and/or features. For purposes of simplicity, those embodiments have not been specifically set forth in haec verba herein. It is also noted that the terms “comprising” and “containing” are intended to be open and permits the inclusion of additional elements or steps. Where ranges are given, endpoints are included. Furthermore, unless otherwise indicated or otherwise evident from the context and understanding of one of ordinary skill in the art, values that are expressed as ranges can assume any specific value or sub-range within the stated ranges in different embodiments of the invention, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit of the range, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

This application refers to various issued patents, published patent applications, journal articles, and other publications, all of which are incorporated herein by reference. If there is a conflict between any of the incorporated references and the instant specification, the specification shall control. In addition, any particular embodiment of the present invention that falls within the prior art may be explicitly excluded from any one or more of the claims. Because such embodiments are deemed to be known to one of ordinary skill in the art, they may be excluded even if the exclusion is not set forth explicitly herein. Any particular embodiment of the invention can be excluded from any claim, for any reason, whether or not related to the existence of prior art.

Those skilled in the art will recognize or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation many equivalents to the specific embodiments described herein. The scope of the present embodiments described herein is not intended to be limited to the above Description, but rather is as set forth in the appended claims. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that various changes and modifications to this description may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the present invention, as defined in the following claims.

REFERENCES

-   1. Ferlay J, Autier P, Boniol M, Heanue M, Colombet M, and Boyle P.     Estimates of the cancer incidence and mortality in Europe in 2006.     Annals of Oncology. 2007; 18(3):581-92. -   2. Cancer Facts & Figures 2016.     www.cancer.org/acs/groups/cid/documents/webcontent/003134-pdf.pdf. -   3. Antonarakis E S, Feng Z, Trock B J, Humphreys E B, Carducci M A,     Partin A W, Walsh P C, and Eisenberger M A. The natural history of     metastatic progression in men with prostate-specific antigen     recurrence after radical prostatectomy: long-term follow-up. Bju     International. 2012; 109(1):32-9. -   4. Yuan X, and Balk S P. Mechanisms mediating androgen receptor     reactivation after castration. Urol Oncol. 2009; 27(1):36-41. -   5. Watson P A, Arora V K, and Sawyers C L. Emerging mechanisms of     resistance to androgen receptor inhibitors in prostate cancer.     Nature Reviews Cancer. 2015; 15(12):701-11. -   6. Dehm S M, and Tindall D J. Androgen receptor structural and     functional elements: Role and regulation in prostate cancer.     Molecular Endocrinology. 2007; 21(12):2855-63. -   7. Hu R, Dunn T A, Wei S, Isharwal S, Veltri R W, Humphreys E, Han     M, Partin A W, Vessella R L, Isaacs W B, et al. Ligand-Independent     Androgen Receptor Variants Derived from Splicing of Cryptic Exons     Signify Hormone-Refractory Prostate Cancer. Cancer Research. 2009;     69(1):16-22. -   8. Guo Z, Yang X, Sun F, Jiang R, Linn D E, Chen H, Chen H, Kong X,     Melamed J, Tepper C G, et al. A Novel Androgen Receptor Splice     Variant Is Up-regulated during Prostate Cancer Progression and     Promotes Androgen Depletion-Resistant Growth. Cancer Research. 2009;     69(6):2305-13. -   9. Dehm S M, Schmidt L J, Heemers H V, Vessella R L, and Tindall     D J. Splicing of a novel androgen receptor exon generates a     constitutively active androgen receptor that mediates prostate     cancer therapy resistance. Cancer Res. 2008; 68(13):5469-77. -   10. Chan S C, Li Y, and Dehm S M. Androgen Receptor Splice Variants     Activate Androgen Receptor Target Genes and Support Aberrant     Prostate Cancer Cell Growth Independent of Canonical Androgen     Receptor Nuclear Localization Signal. Journal of Biological     Chemistry. 2012; 287(23):19736-49. -   11. Sun S, Sprenger C C T, Vessella R L, Haugk K, Soriano K,     Mostaghel E A, Page S T, Coleman I M, Nguyen H M, Sun H, et al.     Castration resistance in human prostate cancer is conferred by a     frequently occurring androgen receptor splice variant. Journal of     Clinical Investigation. 2010; 120(8):2715-30. -   12. Le Page C, Koumakpayi I H, Alam-Fahmy M, Mes-Masson A M, and     Saad F. Expression and localisation of Akt-1, Akt-2 and Akt-3     correlate with clinical outcome of prostate cancer patients. British     Journal of Cancer. 2006; 94(12):1906-12. -   13. Ciccarese C, Santoni M, Brunelli M, Buti S, Modena A, Nabissi M,     Artibani W, Martignoni G, Montironi R, Tortora G, et al. AR-V7 and     prostate cancer: The watershed for treatment selection? Cancer     Treatment Reviews. 2016(43):27-35. -   14. Miyamoto D T, Zheng Y, Wittner B S, Lee R J, Zhu H, Broderick K     T, Desai R, Fox D B, Brannigan B W, Trautwein J, et al. RNA-Seq of     single prostate CTCs implicates noncanonical Wnt signaling in     antiandrogen resistance. Science. 2015; 349(6254):1351-6. -   15. Qu Y, Dai B, Ye D, Kong Y, Chang K, Jia Z, Yang X, Zhang H, Zhu     Y, and Shi G. Constitutively Active AR-V7 Plays an Essential Role in     the Development and Progression of Castration-Resistant Prostate     Cancer. Scientific Reports. 2015; 5. 

1. A compound of Formula (I):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: A is an optionally substituted heterocyclyl or optionally substituted heteroaryl; L and L₁, independently are absent, or are optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ heteroaliphatic; Q is hydrogen, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —R^(a), —OH, —OR^(a), —OC(O)R^(a), —OC(O)OR^(a), —OC(O)N(R^(a))₂, —NH₂, —N(R^(a))₂, —NC(O)R^(a), —NC(O)OR^(a), or —NC(O)N(R^(a))₂; each occurrence of R^(a), independently, is optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heteroaliphatic, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; R₁ is optionally substituted aliphatic, or optionally substituted heteroaliphatic, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; R₂ is hydrogen, optionally substituted aliphatic, or optionally substituted heteroaliphatic; X₁ and X₂, independently, are selected from hydrogen, halogen, —OH, or optionally substituted aliphatic, or X₁ and X₂ together form an oxo (═O) group; and wherein Q and L, Q and L₁, Q and R₂ or Q and X₁ may combine to form a ring.
 2. The compound of claim 1, having a structure selected from Formulae (IA), (IB), (IC), (ID) and (IE), and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof:


3. The compound of claim 1, having the structure of Formula (IF):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: L is absent, or is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ heteroaliphatic; each occurrence of R, independently, is halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —R^(a), —OH, —OR^(a), —OC(O)R^(a), —OC(O)OR^(a), —OC(O)N(R^(a))₂, —NH₂, —N(R^(a))₂, —NC(O)R^(a), —NC(O)OR^(a), or —NC(O)N(R^(a))₂; wherein each occurrence of R^(a), independently, is optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heteroaliphatic, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; R₁ is optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; R₂ is hydrogen, optionally substituted aliphatic, or optionally substituted heteroaliphatic; Z₁ and Z₂ are independently absent, C₁₋₂ alkylene, or

 provided that only one of Z₁ and Z₂ is

R₃ is optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heteroaliphatic, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; and n is 0-3.
 4. The compound of claim 1, having a structure selected from Formulae (IF-a), (IF-b), (IF-c), (IF-d), and (IF-e):


5. The compound of claim 1, having a structure selected from Formulae (IF-a3), (IF-a4), (IF-b3), (IF-b4), (IF-c3), (IF-c4), (IF-d3), (IF-d4), (IF-e3), and (IF-e4):

6-22. (canceled)
 23. The compound of claim 1, selected from the compounds of Table 1, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.
 24. A compound of Formula (II):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: L₁ is absent, or is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ heteroaliphatic; L₂ is absent, or is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ heteroaliphatic; X is —O—, —S— or —N(R)—; R is hydrogen, or optionally substituted alkyl; Q₁, Q₂, and Q₃, independently, are ═N— or ═C(R₁)—; R₁ is hydrogen, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —R^(a), —OH, —OR^(a), —OC(O)R^(a), —OC(O)OR^(a), —OC(O)N(R^(a))₂, —NH₂, —N(R^(a))₂, —NC(O)R^(a), —NC(O)OR^(a), or —NC(O)N(R^(a))₂; wherein each occurrence of R^(a), independently, is optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heteroaliphatic, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; R₂ is optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; R₃ is optionally substituted alkyl, or optionally substituted cycloalkyl; R₄ is hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl; and R₅ is optionally substituted aryl or optionally substituted heteroaryl.
 25. The compound of claim 24, having the structure selected from Formulae (IIA), (IIB), (IIC), and (IID), and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof:

26-43. (canceled)
 44. The compound of claim 24, having the structure of Formula (IIA-a):


45. The compound of claim 24, having the structure of Formula (IIA-b):


46. The compound of claim 24, having the structure of Formula (IIA-c):


47. The compound of claim 24, having the structure of Formula (IIA-d):


48. The compound of claim 26, selected from the compounds of Table 2, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.
 49. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of claim 1 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent.
 50. A method of modulating the expression of a gene, wherein the gene expression is mediated by an androgen receptor, comprising exposing the androgen receptor to a compound of claim
 1. 51. (canceled)
 52. A method of modulating androgen receptor function, comprising exposing the androgen receptor to a compound of claim
 1. 53. (canceled)
 54. The method of claim 50, wherein the gene is AKT1.
 55. The method of claim 50, wherein the androgen acceptor is an androgen receptor splice variant (AR-v).
 56. The method of claim 55, wherein the AR-v is AR-v7.
 57. (canceled)
 58. A method of treating prostate cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, comprising administering to the subject a compound of claim
 1. 59-61. (canceled) 